! 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


PLATE  I 


Above  the  glass  ceiling  are  red,  green,  and  blue  lamps  controlled 
by  rheostats.  By  varying  the  intensities  of  the  three  colored  lights 
a  vast  variety  of  color  effects  may  be  obtained  such  as  dawn, 
sunlight,  sunset,  twilight's  afterglow,  and  moonlight. 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


BY 

M.  LUCKIESH 

DIRECTOR  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE,  NELA  RESEARCH  LABORATORIES, 
NATIONAL  LAMP  WORKS  OF  GENERAL  ELECTRIC  COMPANY 

Author  of  "Color  and  Its  Applications,  * 'Light  and  Shade 

and  Their  Applications,"  "The  Lighting  Art,"  "The 

Language  of  Color,"  "Artificial  Light,"  etc. 


ILLUSTRATED 


-rS 


NEW  YORK 

THE  CENTURY  CO. 

1920 


Copyright,  1920,  by 
THE  CENTUBY  Co. 


'To  make  a  happy  fireside  dime 

To  weans  and  wife, 
That  's  the  true  pathos  and  sublime 

Of  human  life.'' 

— Burns. 


43543? 


PEEFACE 

For  ages  artificial  light  has  been  meager, 
costly,  and  inconvenient,  but  the  achievements 
in  light-production  during  the  past  few  decades 
have  culminated  in  an  era  of  adequate,  inexpen- 
sive, and  convenient  artificial  light.  Mankind 
has  inherited  from  the  "dark  ages,"  so  recently 
left  behind,  an  attitude  of  indifference  toward 
artificial  light  and  a  narrow  view  of  its  possi- 
bilities. These  legacies  are  inhibiting  the  devel- 
opment of  residence  lighting  and  are  respons- 
ible to  some  extent  for  the  lack  of  appreciation 
of  the  potentiality  of  light.  The  home  is  at 
once  a  powerful  cause  and  a  crowning  effect  of 
civilized  progress,  and  artificial  light  has  been 
intimately  associated  with  its  evolution.  By 
force  of  habit,  artificial  light  is  generally  con- 
sidered in  a  narrow  utilitarian  sense,  despite  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  superb  expressive  medium  yield- 
ing results  under  the  guidance  of  the  lighting 
artist  which  dwarf  those  of  decoration  and 
furnishing,  when  cost  is  considered.  Unfor- 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

tunately,  those  who  are  in  touch  with  lighting  in 
the  home  seldom  look  beyond  the  fixtures  to  the 
effects  upon  the  mood  or  expression  of  the  room. 
We  crave  variety  throughout  the  byways  of  life 
and  in  artificial  light  we  have  a  mobile  medium 
which  can  do  much  in  reducing  the  monotony 
of  our  environment. 

The  primary  aim  of  this  book  is  to  broaden 
the  view  toward  lighting  to  an  extent  worthy  of 
the  potentiality  of  modern  light.  This  is  ever 
a  keynote  in  the  following  pages,  even  in  the 
discussion  of  details.  It  has  been  the  intention 
to  establish  an  intimacy  with  lighting  effects, 
whether  dealing  with  general  principles  or  with 
specific  problems.  The  former  are  dealt  with 
in  the  early  chapters  and  the  latter  in  the  next 
group.  Attention  is  confined  primarily  to  dis- 
tribution of  light  until  the  closing  chapters  are 
reached.  These  provide  glimpses  into  the 
depths  where  color  accumulated  its  powers.  In 
the  final  chapter  the  production  and  use  of 
colored  light  are  discussed  with  the  hope  that 
the  householder  will  be  aided  in  introducing 
some  of  the  charm  of  color  into  lighting. 

Complete  control  over  the  distribution  and 
quality  of  light  is  possible.  The  former  pro- 
vides the  "values"  and  the  latter  the  drapery 


PREFACE  ix 

of  color.  "Painting  with  light "  is  not  merely 
a  metaphorical  phrase ;  it  is  accomplished  by  the 
lighting  artist.  If  the  householder  will  con- 
sider lighting  as  seriously  as  he  does  decoration 
and  furnishing,  he  will  find  artificial  light  a  con- 
trollable, convenient,  inexpensive,  mobile  me- 
dium— a  powerful  ally  in  making  a  house  a 
home. 

M.  LUCKIESH. 
March  1,  1920. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I    ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT    . 3 

II  LIGHT  AS  AN  EXPRESSIVE  MEDIUM      .     .     22 

III  VARIETY — THE  SPICE  OF  LIGHTING     .     .     39 

IV  SAFEGUARDING  VISION 51 

V  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTURES  ....     64 

VI     THE  LIVING-ROOM 82 

VII     THE  DINING-ROOM 98 

VIII    VARIOUS  ROOMS 117 

IX    PLANNING  THE  WIRING 130 

X  PORTABLE  LIGHTING  " FURNITURE"   .     .  151 

XI  PERIOD  STYLE  IN  LIGHTING  FIXTURES   .  165 

XII    NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING 190 

XIII  INCANDESCENT  LAMPS  FOR  THE  HOME   .  207 

XIV  TERMINOLOGY 218 

XV  THE  EXPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR   .      .      .  237 

XVI  THE  IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     .     .      .  254 

XVII    COLORED  LIGHT 270 

INDEX  .     .  .  285 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATE  I Frontispiece 


FACING 
PAGE 


Above  the  glass  ceiling  are  red,  green,  and 
blue  lamps  controlled  by  rheostats.  By  vary- 
ing the  intensities  of  the  three  colored  lights 
a  vast  variety  of  color  effects  may  be  obtained 
such  as  dawn,  sunlight,  sunset,  twilight's 
afterglow,  and  moonlight 

PLATE  II 84 

a.  Novelties  such  as  windows  emitting 
artificial  "moonlight"  or  "sunlight"  are 
among  the  possibilities  of  modern  lighting 

&.  The  effect  of  a  strong  downward  com- 
ponent of  light  from  the  central  fixture.  See 
Figure  18 

PLATE  III 85 

a.  The  effect  of  a  predominant  upward 
component  from  the  central  fixture.  See 
Figure  18 

&.  The  effect  of  a  predominant  downward 
component  reinforced  by  a  secondary  effect 
of  tinted  light  from  the  cove 

PLATE  IV 184 

a.  The  downward  component  from  a  spe- 
cial portable  produces  a  cozy  effect  even  in 

large  rooms 

xiii 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 
FACING 

b.  An  upward  component  added  to  the 
foregoing  provides  general  lighting.  See 
Figure  10, 

PLATE  Y 185 

a.  A  modern  dome  is  excellent  for  the 
dining-room.  See  Figure  16 

6.  A  kitchen  requires  light  everywhere 
and  an  " indirect"  fixture  provides  such 
lighting.  Brackets  such  as  the  one  over  the 
sink  should  be  equipped  with  shades  or  dif- 
fusing media 

PLATE  VI 240 

a.  An  "outdoors"  effect  may  be  empha- 
sized by  appropriate  lighting 

&.  A  simple  fixture  which  provides  a  de- 
gree of  variety  in  lighting  effects  in  the  din- 
ing-room. See  Figures  1  and  14 

PLATE  VII 241 

Illustrating  the  wide  range  in  lighting  ef- 
fect obtainable  by  means  of  a  "  direct-indi- 
rect" portable.  See  Figure  10.  Such  fix- 
tures are  effective  in  the  home 

FIGUHE  PAQI 

1.  A  commercial  fixture  with  two  circuits  from 

each  of  which  a  distinct  lighting  effect  is 
obtained 47 

2.  A  simple  "direct-lighting"  fixture  ...     67 

3.  Two  "indirect-lighting"  fixtures  consisting 

of  opaque  bowls  containing  silvered   re- 
flectors in  which  the  lamps  are  located  .     68 

4.  5,  6.     Simple  "semi-indirect"  lighting  fix- 

tures.    The  one  represented  in  Figure  6 


ILLUSTEATIONS  xv 

FIGURE  PAGE 

really  approximates  a  " direct-lighting" 
fixture  owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  bowl 
to  the  ceiling 68 

7.  A  "direct -indirect"  fixture.    A  large  por- 

tion of  the  light  is  reflected  directly  to  the 
ceiling  by  the  metal  reflector  M,  and  some 
light  escapes  downward  to  be  diffused  by 
the  opal  glass  plate  P.  A  slight  amount 
escapes  between  the  plate  and  the  reflector 
to  illuminate  the  textile  shade  8.  .  .  .69 

8.  A  fixture  which  involves  the  principles  of 

"indirect"  and  "semi-indirect"  lighting 
but  in  effect  does  not  differ  materially 
from  "direct-lighting."  The  diffusing 
bowl  B  may  be  considered  to  have  been 
drawn  up  near  to  the  ceiling  by  shorten- 
ing its  support  and  the  ceiling  may  be  con- 
sidered to  have  contracted  to  a  small  white 
circular  spot  C 72 

9.  A   "luminous-bowl"   fixture  in  which   the 

opaque  bowl  of  an  indirect  fixture  is  re- 
placed by  one  of  diffusing  glass  (or  of 
other  material)  5,  and  a  small  lamp  L  is 
provided  for  illuminating  the  bowl.  The 
silvered  reflectors  S  contain  lamps  whose 
light  is  directed  upward 73 

10.  A  portable  which  provides  an  indirect  com- 

ponent of  light  as  well  as  the  usual  direct 
light.  The  inner  mechanism  is  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines 88 

11,  12,  13.    Wall-brackets  which  yield  different 

lighting  effects.  Figure  11,  direct  light- 
ing; Figure  12,  semi-indirect  lighting; 
Figure  13,  indirect  lighting  ....  91 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

14.  Illustrating  satisfactory  and  unsatisfactory 

shades  for  a  shower  for  lighting  the 
dining-table 105 

15.  Illustrating  the  glaring  effect  which  results 

in  hanging  the  dome  too  high  .      .      .      .  107 

16.  A  modern  dome  of  dense  glass.     It  is  deep 

enough  so  that  a  single  lamp,  preferably 
of  diffusing  glass  installed  as  shown,  is 
well  shielded.  The  small  opal  glass  shade 
0  is  added  to  reduce  the  illumination  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  dome  and  thereby  to 
reduce  the  brightness  of  the  inner  portion 
which  is  visible 109 

17.  A  simple  fixture  designed  to  retain  and  im- 

prove upon  the  lighting  effect  obtained  by 
means  of  a  dome.  The  result  is  a  fixture 
of  entirely  different  appearance  which  can 
be  hung  nearly  three  feet  above  the  table 
owing  to  the  accurate  control  of  the  direct 
light  which  is  emitted  downward  .  .  .  Ill 

18.  A  more  elaborate  type  of  the  fixture  illus- 

trated in  simple  detail  in  Figure  17.  This 
fixture  contains  three  circuits  which  pro- 
vide direct,  semi-indirect,  and  indirect 
lighting  respectively 114 

19.  This  illustrates  a  simplified  portable  which 

supplies  direct  and  indirect  components 
simultaneously.  A  large  lamp  (75-watt 
to  150- watt)  is  surrounded  by  a  small  in- 
ner shade  of  opal  glass.  Other  sockets 
may  be  added  if  more  direct  light  is  de- 
sired   119 

20.  Satisfactory  lighting  at  the  bathroom  mirror 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIGURE  PAGE 

is  best  accomplished  by  means  of  two  opal 
lamps  or  simple  brackets  as  shown   .      .   122 

21.  Adequate  wiring  of  the  first  floor  of  a  middle- 

class  house 135 

22.  Adequate  wiring  of  the  second  floor  of  a 

middle-class  house     .      .      .      .      .      .      .  138 

23.  Adequate  wiring  of  a  basement  ....   141 

24.  Illustrating  the  effect  of  the  height  of  the 

pedestal  of  a  portable  lamp,  other  dimen- 
sions remaining  constant 154 

25.  Illustrating   the    undesirability   of   a   high 

pedestal   combined   with   a  very  shallow 
shade 155 

26.  Illustrating  a  common  difficulty  arising  from 

two  light-sources  in  a  shade 155 

27.  Illustrating  the  effect  of  the  height  of  the 

light-source  in  the  shade,  the  other  dimen- 
sions remaining  constant 156 

28  to  34.  Satisfactory  portable  lamps  for  various 
purposes.  The  heights  are  shown  by  the 
scale  on  the  left  and  the  number  and  ap- 
proximate positions  of  the  light-sources  are 
shown  by  the  crosses 158 

35.  Egyptian  ornamentation  on  a  modern  light- 

ing-fixture        166 

36.  A  modern  lighting  standard  based  on  the 

antique 167 

37.  A  Gothic  lantern  designed  in  the  sixteenth 

century 173 

38.  A  Gothic  fixture  of  modern  design  ...    .      .173 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

39.  A  crystal  chandelier  of  the  French  Renais- 

sance period 175 

40.  A  modern  " shower"  of  elaborate  treatment, 

after   the   French   Renaissancce    .      .      .  176 

41.  A  graceful  Empire  fixture  showing  a  modern 

adaptation  of  the  candelabra  ....   178 

42.  An  Elizabethan  of  modern  adaptation  .      .  180 

43.  A  modern  fixture  of  the  Georgian  period 

style 181 

44.  Two  wall-brackets  designed  by  the  Adam 

brothers 182 

45.  A  modern  wall-bracket  of  Adam  style  .     .  183 

46.  An  application  of  Adam  ornamentation  to 

the  glass  shades  of  a  wall-bracket  of  simple 
design 184 

47.  A  colonial  fixture 185 

48.  An  example  of  1'art  nouveau 187 

49.  Imitation  flower-boxes  placed  on  the  wall  six 

feet  or  more  above  the  floor  provide  a  novel 
means  for  obtaining  indirect  lighting  .  192 

50.  An  ornamental  urn  in  which  a  reflector  and 

lamp  are  concealed  may  be  set  upon  a  book- 
case and  thus  provide  indirect  lighting. 
It  is  wired  like  a  portable  lamp  .  .  .  193 

51.  A  floor  standard  terminating  in  a  bowl  or 

urn  at  the  upper  end  is  sometimes  an  ap- 
propriate indirect-lighting  fixture  .  .  .  194 

52.  An  ornamental  object  containing  an  asym- 

metrical reflector  and  a  lamp  (as  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines)  can  be  set  upon  the  piano 


ILLUSTEATIONS  xix 

FIGURE  PAGE 

or  other  object  of  sufficient  height.  It  is 
a  portable  lamp  which  provides  only  an 
indirect  component 195 

53.  A  small  ornamental  projection  for  conceal- 

ing a  lamp  and  a  reflector.  Where  it  is 
necessary  that  this  be  small,  the  reflector 
can  be  dispensed  with  and  a  cavity  may  ex- 
tend into  the  wall 196 

54.  Illustrating  a  cornice  for  concealed  lighting 

effects.  The  cornice  may  be  made  smaller 
by  dispensing  with  the  reflectors.  On  the 
right  is  illustrated  the  method  of  obtaining 
this  concealed  lighting.  In  a  narrow  dark 
vestibule  or  dark  hall  a  charming  effect 
may  be  obtained  by  providing  a  glass  sky- 
light or  a  lattice  along  the  dotted  line  .  197 

55.  An   artificial   " daylight"   or   " moonlight " 

window.  A  decorative  leaded  glass  may 
be  used  instead  of  the  lattice  and  flower- 
box  198 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT 

THE  primitive  being  who  seized  a  flaming 
fagot  from  the  open  campfire  and  carried 
it  into  his  cave  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
modern  home.  He  performed  an  act  whose 
civilizing  influence  was  destined  to  be  im- 
measurable. His  mate  and  offspring  followed 
him,  and  this  animal  family  for  the  first  time 
sensed  the  cheer  and  comfort  of  home.  The 
crackling  fire  at  the  entrance  screened  these 
primitive  beings  from  many  of  the  dangers  of 
the  open.  The  heat  and  light  which  radiated 
into  the  recesses  of  the  cave  drove  cold  and 
darkness  from  it.  Privacy  and  intimacy  gradu- 
ally changed  the  crude  ties  of  mated  animals 
into  the  bonds  of  family.  Leisure  hours  after 
the  day's  foraging  strengthened  these  bonds 
and  the  roots  of  civilized  progress  were  nour- 


4  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ished.  This  early  being  awakened  to  a  new  life. 
He  began  to  plan  and  to  make  devices ;  he  prac- 
ticed crude  arts;  and,  above  all,  he  sensed  the 
joy  of  increased  freedom  from  nature.  Fire 
emancipated  him  from  cold  and  darkness. 
The  magnitude  of  the  achievement  of  a  fire 
"upon  the  hearth "  gradually  dawned  upon 
primitive  man,  and  in  the  security  of  his  cave, 
surrounded  by  his  family,  a  desire  for  greater 
independence  was  born.  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  civilized  progress  and  this  ambition  has 
burned  ever  more  fiercely  in  the  breast  of  civil- 
ized man.  It  has  waged  incessant  warfare 
against  a  hostile  nature.  It  has  wrested  from 
her  secrets  which  have  been  closely  guarded.  It 
is  responsible  for  the  tremendous  strides  of 
civilization. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  artificial 
light  is  similar  to  that  of  other  developments. 
It  shows  a  slow  but  certain  progress,  measured 
by  centuries,  until  knowledge  was  organized 
into  sciences.  From  this  time  onward  progress 
became  more  rapid  and  gradually  gained  in  mo- 
mentum. Finally,  when  the  sciences  became 
organized  and  also  the  invading  army  adept  in 
these  sciences,  nature  began  to  yield  her  secrets 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  5 

rapidly.  During  the  past  century  the  momen- 
tum has  gained  so  rapidly  that  at  the  present 
time  scientific  progress  is  measured  yearly,  in- 
stead of  by  centuries.  In  the  production  of  ar- 
tificial light  the  achievements  of  the  past  cen- 
tury have  been  momentous  and  even  during 
these  early  years  of  the  twentieth  century, 
epoch-making  scientific  achievements  have 
eclipsed  the  combined  progress  of  all  the  ages 
since  the  first  utilization  of  fire  by  primitive 
man. 

Throughout  untold  ages  mankind  burned 
wood  and  other  material  in  its  natural  state  to 
obtain  light.  As  knowledge  increased,  inven- 
tive genius  improved  upon  the  raw  materials  of 
nature.  Wood,  twisted  fibers,  and  the  pith  of 
rushes  were  rendered  more  light-giving  by  soak- 
ing in  animals  fats.  In  quest  of  less  smoke  and 
more  light,  man  sought  for  what  the  scientists 
of  later  centuries  termed  "better  combustion. ' ' 
Reservoirs  of  grease  or  oil,  which  were  drained 
by  burning  \vicks,  came  into  use.  Vegetable  and 
animal  life  were  made  to  yield  their  oils, 
greases,  and  waxes.  The  candle  evolved  from 
the  oil  and  grease  lamp,  for  it  is  an  oil-lamp  in 
operation.  When  cold  its  fuel  is  hard,  and 


6  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

therefore  it  is  a  wonderfully  portable  and  con- 
venient "lamp." 

Mankind  ushered  in  the  nineteenth  century  by 
the  light  of  burning  fuel.  In  fact,  the  century 
was  beginning  to  wane  before  a  departure  was 
made  in  the  production  of  light  for  the  home. 
In  1879  Edison  invented  the  lamp  whose  fine 
filament  of  carbon  was  heated  to  incandescence 
by  means  of  an  electric  current.  A  few  years 
later  Welsbach  produced  the  gas-mantle  and,  al- 
though fuel  was  still  burned  around  the  mantle, 
this  marked  an  epoch  in  light-production.  De- 
spite the  handicaps  imposed  upon  the  utiliza- 
tion of  lamps  in  which  fuel  is  burned,  the 
achievements  in  gas-lighting  are  worthy  of 
great  commendation. 

When  the  twentieth  century  dawned  great 
strides  had  already  been  made  in  the  use  of 
electric  filament  lamps,  but  greater  achieve- 
ments were  to  come.  In  a  few  years  the  tungs- 
ten lamp  appeared,  and  shortly  afterward  the 
gas-filled  tungsten  filament  lamp  greatly  ex- 
tended the  possibilities  of  lighting.  This  is  not 
a  history  of  lighting,  so  the  wonderful  evolution 
of  the  production  of  artificial  light  has  been 
passed  over  very  briefly.  However,  herein  lies 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  7 

one  of  the  fascinating  romances  of  organized 
science.  A  century  ago  mankind  was  still 
groping  in  the  dark  age  under  the  feeble  light 
of  flickering  flames.  Light  was  costly  and  in- 
adequate. Through  the  magic  of  organized 
science  light  is  no  longer  a  luxury  or  a  pure 
utility.  Its  cost  is  now  about  one-fiftieth  of  the 
cost  of  the  candle-light  of  a  century  ago.  Dur- 
ing the  score  of  years  immediately  preceding 
the  beginning  of  the  recent  World  War  the  cost 
of  living  increased  sixty  per  cent.,  while  the 
cost  of  lighting  diminished  to  less  than  twenty 
per  cent.;  that  is,  in  those  two  decades  the 
ratio  of  cost  of  living  to  the  cost  of  light  in- 
creased about  eight  hundred  per  cent. 

The  developments  in  light-production  during 
the  past  decades  have  rapidly  decreased  the 
cost  and  increased  the  potentiality  of  light. 
In  fact,  civilization  has  been  so  swiftly  projected 
out  of  the  age  of  mere  light  that  mankind  is 
found  in  the  present  era  of  adequate  and  inex- 
pensive light  with  an  attitude  acquired  through 
long  ages  of  frugal  use  of  inadequate  and  costly 
light.  For  ages  artificial  light  was  an  inconve- 
nience which  mankind  was  obliged  to  tolerate 
in  order  to  lengthen  the  day.  Until  toward 


8  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  house- 
holder did  not  have  satisfactory  utilitarian 
light,  and  it  has  been  only  a  decade  or  two  since 
the  wonderful  products  of  organized  modern 
science  have  provided  artificial  light  of  exten- 
sive potentiality. 

But  before  discussing  the  wonderful  possi- 
bilities of  artificial  light  it  is  necessary  to  show 
that  its  cost  at  the  present  time  is  insignificant 
from  the  viewpoint  of  its  convenience  and  of  its 
effectiveness.  A  brief  discussion  along  this 
line  is  introduced  because  the  householder  usu- 
ally has  a  misconception  in  this  respect. 
After  the  house  or  enclosure  is  built,  the  heat- 
ing-plant in  most  dwellings  is  of  primary  im- 
portance. The  artificial  * '  lighting-plant ' '  ranks 
next.  There  may  be  some  difference  of  opinion 
in  regard  to  the  order  of  rank  of  essentials, 
but  it  is  certain  that  artificial  light  has  come 
to  be  a  very  important  part  of  the  house.  It 
is  strange  that  this  feature  of  a  house  is  given 
so  little  attention,  except  on  those  rare  and 
much  berated  occasions  when  the  lighting  serv- 
ice fails.  In  later  chapters  the  desirability  of 
giving  more  attention  to  the  lighting  at  the 
right  time  is  emphasized,  but  at  this  point  it  is 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  9 

hoped  that  the  reader  will  visualize  his  home 
during  those  endless  "lightless"  evenings 
which  doubtless  he  has  experienced.  Then  let 
him  think  of  the  joy  and  comfort  that  he  has 
had  from  convenient,  adequate,  and  pleasing 
lighting  at  any  time  during  the  day  or  night  for 
a  cost  of  five  cents  per  day  and  at  most  an 
average  of  ten  cents  per  day.  In  fact,  the  aver- 
age cost  of  lighting  the  home  will  not  exceed  ten 
cents  per  day,  with  maintenance  and  investment 
charges  included. 

To  express  it  in  other  terms,  the  operating 
cost  of  artificial  light  in  the  average  middle- 
class  home  is  comparable  with  the  cost  of  wash- 
ing windows  or  with  the  cost  of  cream  in  the 
coffee  for  breakfast  for  one  person.  The 
reader  may  extend  the  comparison  at  will,  with 
the  result  that  he  will  experience  a  growing  ap- 
preciation of  the  blessing  of  artificial  light  and 
of  its  relative  insignificant  cost.  As  a  pure 
utility  it  is  indispensable,  but  its  greatest 
office  in  the  home  is  as  an  expressive  medium. 
It  enhances  the  mood  of  a  room  and,  even  more, 
it  is  the  dominating  influence  in  creating  the 
mood  in  many  cases.  In  its  mobility  lies  its 
greatest  power,  for  by  varying  the  lighting 


10  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

effect  the  expression  of  a  room  may  be  altered. 
When  properly  provided  for,  this  variety  pro- 
ducible by  lighting  is  a  preeminent  property  un- 
equalled by  furnishings  and  decorative  schemes. 
And  all  this  time  purely  utilitarian  lighting  is 
a  by-product. 

Let  the  householder  mentally  invoice  his 
furnishings.  A  picture  on  the  wall  over  a 
small  decorative  portable  has  cost,  say,  twenty- 
five  dollars.  It  hangs  there,  apparently  con- 
suming nothing.  The  small  portable,  when 
lighted,  is  consuming  electricity,  and  the  house- 
holder visualizes  the  meter  in  the  corner  of 
the  basement  ticking  off  the  watt-hours.  He 
sees  in  his  mind's  eye  the  meterman  recording 
this  apparent  extravagance,  but  he  does  not 
consider  that  the  picture  is  costing  him  $1.50 
per  year,  if  the  earning  power  of  the  invested 
capital  is  taken  at  six  per  cent.  This  $1.50  will 
provide  electricity  for  the  small  portable  lamp 
for  the  whole  year.  The  bric-a-brac  on  the 
mantel  is  costing  as  much  to  own  (six  per  cent, 
on  the  investment)  as  the  reading-lamp  costs  to 
operate.  Pursuing  this  analysis  further,  the 
average  householder  may  be  startled  to  find  that 
the  interest  on  the  investment  in  the  pictures  on 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  11 

the  wall  or  in  a  few  ornaments  exceeds  the  cost 
of  lighting.  Furthermore,  a  purely  decorative 
use  of  light  is  as  justifiable  as  any  ornamenta- 
tion. 

Artificial  light  is  not  a  pure  utility,  and  until 
the  householder  recognizes  its  potentiality  as  an 
artistic,  or  more  broadly,  a  psychological  me- 
dium he  will  not  adequately  provide  the  wiring 
and  fixtures  necessary  to  extract  the  joy  from 
it.  He  pays  ten  times  more  for  his  dining- 
table  than  is  necessary  from  a  purely  utilitarian 
point  of  view.  He  spends  more  for  the  drap- 
eries in  his  house  than  for  his  entire  lighting 
equipment.  Some  one  has  said  that  economy  is 
judicious  spending.  But  the  latter  cannot  be 
achieved  without  a  true  sense  of  values.  In 
order  to  judge  the  value  of  artificial  lighting  rel- 
ative to  that  of  draperies,  furnishings,  etc.,  it 
is  necessary  to  look  deeply  into  its  potentiality. 
It  is  the  aim  of  the  following  chapters  to  open 
the  doorway  for  such  a  view. 

"Without  light,  man's  most  important  and  edu- 
cative sense  becomes  useless.  Man  is  as  blind 
without  light  as  he  is  without  sight.  But  im- 
proper lighting  jeopardizes  eyesight,  and  the 
brilliant  modern  light-sources  must  be  shaded 


12  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

and  the  light  must  be  diffused,  if  visual  safety 
and  comfort  are  to  be  realized.  The  less  bril- 
liant light-sources  of  a  few  decades  ago  were 
comparatively  harmless,  and  the  householder's 
present  attitude,  being  a  relic  of  the  earlier 
days,  does  not  safeguard  him  from  the  evils 
of  faulty  lighting.  There  is  plenty  of  evidence 
that  improper  lighting  is  responsible  for  many 
permanent  eye-defects.  This  is  especially  true 
with  children  whose  eyes  are  immature  in  devel- 
opment. Kecords  in  schools  have  shown  that 
eye-defects  (of  which  near-sightedness  is  most 
prevalent)  increase  from  grade  to  grade,  even 
with  the  same  group  of  pupils.  Reports  indi- 
cate that  with  improvement  of  lighting,  not  only 
in  the  schools  but  also  in  the  homes,  there  is  a 
marked  decrease  in  eye-defects.  Vision  is  one 
of  the  divine  gifts  to  mankind.  It  is  worth 
safeguarding  by  means  of  proper  lighting.  In 
a  later  chapter  the  subject  is  treated  in  detail, 
but  suffice  it  to  state  at  this  point  that  a  true 
esthetic  sensibility  will  detect  harmful  lighting 
in  the  home.  There  can  be  no  artistic  lighting 
effect  which  is  glaring  or  otherwise  harmful  to 
vision.  If  such  were  the  case,  there  could  be  no 
harmony  which  is  an  essential  to  beauty.  The 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  13 

charm  of  lighting  flees  before  glare;  hence  by 
striving  for  artistic  lighting  effects  the  house- 
holder is  tending  to  avoid  harmful  effects. 

Light  does  not  merely  reveal  things  to  the  hu- 
man organism.  It  is  responsible  for  much  of 
the  beauty  of  the  external  world.  Of  course, 
upon  the  attitude,  the  sensibility,  the  intelli- 
gence, and  the  culture  of  the  individual  depends 
the  ability  to  sense  the  beauty  in  this  external 
world.  In  other  words,  the  charm  about  us  de- 
pends upon  that  immaterial  something  which  we 
put  into  it.  Nevertheless,  light  supplies  a  ma- 
terial essential.  It  models  sculpture;  it. 
breathes  life  into  the  inanimate  pigments  of 
paintings;  it  gives  expression  to  the  work  of 
the  decorator.  In  fact,  it  is  responsible  for 
the  magical  drapery  which  spreads  over  all 
creation  and  appeals  to  the  human  conscious- 
ness through  the  doorway  of  vision.  It  is  a 
medium  not  as  material  as  the  media  of  artists, 
but  it  has  gre'ater  potentiality,  for,  besides  giv- 
ing life  to  the  media  of  artists,  it  possesses  the 
superb  property  of  mobility. 

But  the  powers  of  light  extend  still  further. 
Through  ages  of  associations,  which  began 
when  mankind  was  superstitious  and  fanciful,  it 


14  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

has  acquired  many  attributes.  By  continued 
usage  and  common  consent  these  have  become  so 
definite  that  they  are  now  considered  innate 
characteristics.  Learning  is,  or  at  least  is  the 
result  of,  a  chain  of  numberless  associations. 
There  is  a  vast  uncultivated  field  in  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  expressiveness  and  impressiveness 
of  light  and  color.  Experimental  psychology  is 
a  newly-born  science  which  bids  fair  to  unearth 
and  organize  knowledge  of  great  value  in  light- 
ing. But  even  to-day  the  householder  is  not 
utilizing  in  his  home  much  of  the  definite  knowl- 
edge of  the  charm  and  expressiveness  of  light. 
Modern  light-sources  are  so  efficient  and  adapt- 
able that  artificial  light  may  be  controlled  to 
suit  the  needs  of  home-lighting.  We  now  have 
a  medium  of  greater  potentiality  than  any  other 
in  the  home,  and  control  over  this  medium  is 
rapidly  being  extended.  Direction,  distribu- 
tion, diffusion,  and  color  of  light  may  be  modi- 
fied at  will. 

In  dealing  with  light  we  enter  three  realms  of 
science,  namely,  physics,  physiology  and  psy- 
chology. The  light-source  emits  radiant  energy 
which  is  analyzed  by  the  physicist.  After  this 
energy  enters  the  eye  physiological  reactions 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  15 

begin,  and  finally,  when  the  resulting  messages 
reach  the  brain,  the  sensation  of  light  is  pro- 
duced. There  is  no  color  in  objects ;  colors  are 
in  the  light.  An  array  of  these  colors  is  dis- 
tinguishable in  the  rainbow,  which  is  sunlight 
decomposed  by  refraction  in  the  raindrops. 
In  a  similar  manner,  a  glass  prism  separates 
light  into  its  component  parts,  each  fundamen- 
tal spectral  color  being  the  sensation  produced 
by  radiant  energy  of  a  certain  wave-length. 
By  combining  these  components  in  various  pro- 
portions the  myriad  colors  are  obtainable.  Ob- 
jects have  the  ability  to  reflect  certain  of  these 
components  and  to  absorb  others.  Thus  an 
object  is  red  because  it  reflects  only  these  rays. 
A  white  or  gray  object  appears  of  the  true 
color  of  the  illuminant  because  it  is  neutral; 
that  is,  it  reflects  all  components  equally  well. 
A  slight  appreciation  of  this  aspect  of  light  is 
necessary  if  one  is  to  be  able  to  utilize  light 
understandingly. 

The  physiology  of  vision  is  important  to  the 
expert,  but  not  particularly  to  the  householder. 
It  is  true  that  lighting  effects  have  certain  phys- 
iological influences,  such  as  the  quickening  of 
the  pulse  and  the  stimulating  of  the  nerves,  but 


16  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

the  effects  of  lighting  are  better  classified  as 
psychological,  or  perhaps  more  safely  as  psy- 
chophysiological.  It  might  be  of  interest  to 
note  that  scientific  investigations  have  revealed 
the  fact  that  about  four  per  cent,  of  civilized  be- 
ings are  color-blind.  However,  from  a  practi- 
cal viewpoint  the  majority  of  persons  are  in- 
different to  color;  that  is,  they  are  not  gener- 
ally conscious  or  appreciative  of  its  presence. 
A  vengeful  Creator  would  relieve  these  of  that 
divine  gift  of  color-vision,  excusing  the  act  upon 
the  principle  that  it  is  insufficiently  used.  How- 
ever, indifference  or  lack  of  consciousness  to- 
ward the  charm  of  light  and  color  reaps  its  own 
punishment,  for  those  individuals  who  look  upon 
the  magical  drapery  of  light  and  color  with  un- 
seeing eyes  miss  much  of  the  charm  of  sur- 
roundings. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  reveal  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  potentiality  of  artificial  light  and 
will  modify  the  attitude  of  the  reader  toward 
lighting.  In  most  cases  this  will  resolve  into 
a  problem  of  overcoming  the  prevalent  indiffer- 
ence toward  artificial  lighting.  It  is  the  hope 
to  achieve  this  by  illustrating  the  possibilities 
of  lighting ;  by  showing  the  depth  of  the  influence 


AETIFICIAL  LIGHT  17 

of  light;  by  emphasizing  again  and  again  that 
lighting  effects  are  the  important  results;  and, 
in  general,  by  showing  that  light  is  a  wonderful 
medium  to  be  handled  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  in  which  the  artist  handles  his  media.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  alteration  in  the  com- 
mon attitude  toward  artificial  light  it  becomes 
a  problem  of  demonstrating  that  light  is  not 
a  mere  utility,  to  be  judged  with  the  same  atti- 
tude which  is  justly  directed  at  fuel  and  food. 
It  is  an  artistic,  or,  more  broadly,  a  psycholog- 
ical medium,  more  effective  per  unit  of  cost 
than  decorations  and  furnishings. 

A  common  practice,  which  is  deplorable,  is 
the  concentration  of  attention  upon  lighting- 
fixtures.  The  designer  designs  fixtures;  the 
dealer  sells  them;  the  householder  purchases 
them.  Most  fixtures  are  aimless  from  the  view- 
point of  lighting.  Many  of  them  are  merely 
objects, — sometimes  beautiful  objects, — fabri- 
cated from  metal,  glass  and  textiles.  The  fix- 
ture-dealer sells  them  usually  without  consider- 
ation for  the  lighting  of  the  particular  room  for 
which  they  are  intended.  Fixture-salesmen  do 
not  often  discuss  lighting  or  demonstrate  the 
lighting  effects  of  their  wares.  Even  the  decor- 


18  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ator's  treatment  of  walls  and  furnishings  de- 
pends upon  reflected  light,  and  therefore  his 
achievements  are,  in  reality,  lighting  effects. 
But  when  he  takes  care  of  the  lighting  he 
appears  to  forget  much  that  he  knows  about 
the  expressiveness  of  his  decorative  schemes 
and  their  dependence  upon  light.  He  ordina- 
rily centers  his  attention  upon  the  fixture  and, 
although  he  may  design  or  select  an  object  of 
beauty,  he  generally  does  not  consider  its  light- 
ing effect  upon  the  room.  Of  course,  fixtures 
have  a  right  to  exist  as  beautiful  objects,  but 
usually  the  lighting  effect  in  the  room  as  a 
whole  is  of  prime  importance,  for  it  can  be  a 
subtle  and  powerful  psychological  influence. 

The  truth  of  these  statements  is  to  be  found 
upon  every  hand  in  homes,  in  the  fixtures  which 
are  displayed  by  the  dealer,  in  the  salesman's 
discussion,  and  in  the  lack  of  demonstration  of 
lighting  effects.  This  is  the  situation  which 
confronts  the  householder,  and  the  reason  for 
his  indifference  toward  lighting  and  his  lack  of 
appreciation  for  lighting  effects  are  evident. 
The  solution  is  for  the  householder  to  become  as 
capable  of  utilizing  the  potentiality  of  lighting 
as  he  is  in  furnishing  his  home,  and  when  he  be- 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  19 

comes  aware  of  the  wonderful  possibilities  of 
lighting  he  will  supply  adequate  wiring  and  ap- 
propriate fixtures. 

In  books  on  decoration  or  home -furnishing, 
if  lighting  is  treated  at  all,  it  is  discussed  inad- 
equately in  a  chapter  or  two.  In  these  and 
other  writings  on  lighting  attention  is  usually 
devoted  to  fixtures  and  illustrations  are  usually 
confined  to  the  more  elaborate  homes.  The  in- 
tention in  the  present  volume  is  to  discuss 
principles  and  to  touch  rather  deeply  upon 
important  phases  of  lighting  which  are  not 
usually  appreciated.  Principles  are  of  primary 
importance  for  they  are  everlasting  and  inva- 
riable. There  can  be  no  more  standardization 
of  lighting  than  of  decoration  and  furnishing. 
Although  many  details  are  presented,  it  is  felt 
that,  equipped  with  the  principles  and  with  a 
conception  of  the  potentiality  of  lighting,  the 
reader  will  be  able  to  achieve  the  solutions  of 
his  specific  problems.  The  middle-class  home 
is  borne  in  mind  predominantly,  but  the  princi- 
ples discussed  apply  to  the  more  pretentious 
residence  as  well.  The  difference  is  merely  a 
matter  of  magnitude  and  particularly  of  the 
cost  and  exclusiveness  of  the  fixtures. 


20  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

In  those  chapters  in  which  it  is  necessary  to 
deal  intimately  with  the  lighting  equipment  the 
terminology  of  electric-lighting  is  used.  How- 
ever, this  is  done  for  simplicity  in  expression 
and  not  to  disparage  gas-lighting.  The  princi- 
ples which  are  discussed  apply  to  any  mode  of 
lighting,  but,  of  course,  are  bounded  by  the  limi- 
tations of  the  method.  The  possibilities  of 
electric-lighting  are  more  extensive  than  those 
of  gas-lighting  because  of  the  natural  handicaps 
imposed  by  open  flames,  burning  fuel,  and  the 
excessive  heat  attending  gas-burners.  This  is 
another  reason  for  adopting  the  terminology  of 
electric-lighting.  Finally,  electricity  is  advanc- 
ing rapidly  in  comparison  to  gas  in  the  lighting 
of  the  home  and  it  is  overwhelmingly  dominant 
in  new  houses.  Much  can  be  done  to  rehabili- 
tate the  lighting  in  old  houses,  and  the  occu- 
pants need  not  shrink  from  the  task  of  provid- 
ing the  adequate  wiring  and  fixtures  which  the 
potentiality  of  lighting  demands,  because  it  is 
not  difficult  to  wire  houses  already  constructed. 
However,  it  is  much  simpler  to  provide  ade- 
quate wiring  during  construction,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  these  chapters  will  convince  the 
householder  that  lighting  holds  much  in  store 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT  21 

for  him  and  that  he  should  provide  for  enjoy- 
ing it. 

Artificial  light  has  been  a  powerful  agency  in 
directing  and  molding  the  course  of  civilization. 
It  may  justly  claim  a  large  share  in  the  progress 
of  mankind.  To  it  we  must  look  for  increasing 
the  production  of  our  industries.  It  has  had 
much  to  do  with  establishing  the  home.  The 
possibilities  of  modern  lighting  are  incompar- 
ably greater  than  those  of  a  century  ago,  but 
they  have  been  barely  drawn  upon.  Artificial 
light  has  been  a  potent  agency  in  the  life  of  man 
and  it  is  a  powerful  influence  in  making  a  house 
a  home.1 

i  For  a  historical  treatment  of  artificial  light,  see  "Artificial 
Light — Its  Influence  upon  Civilization,"  by  M.  Luckiesh.  The 
Century  Co.,  1920. 


II 

LIGHT  AS  AN   EXPKESSIVE   MEDIUM 

IF  the  potential  possibilities  of  artificial  light 
are  to  be  enjoyed  in  the  home,  it  is  essential 
that  the  householder  and  others  responsible  for 
lighting  broaden  their  view  of  the  powers  of 
light.  Many  details  and  principles  are  involved 
in  home-lighting,  but  there  is  one  rule  which 
must  be  emphasized  again  and  again,  namely, 
that  lighting  effect— the  final  effect  upon  the  ex- 
pression of  the  room — is  overwhelmingly  im- 
portant. Lighting-fixtures  in  general  should 
be  considered  as  links  in  the  chain  from  the 
meter  to  the  eye,  that  is,  they  are  means  to  an 
end.  Being  visible,  their  appearance  is  of  more 
importance  than  the  concealed  wiring,  but  the 
greatest  drawback  to  progress  in  lighting  has 
been  the  concentration  of  attention  upon  light- 
ing-fixtures. Most  persons  when  asked  to  ap- 
praise the  lighting  of  a  given  room  immediately 
turn  their  attention  to  fixtures,  instead  of  view- 
ing the  room  as  a  whole.  This  tendency  may 

22 


AN  EXPKESSIVE  MEDIUM          23 

be  utilized  occasionally,  but  it  does  not  result 
in  a  true  or  adequate  appraisal  of  the  lighting 
effect.  There  are  isolated  cases  when  a  port- 
able lamp,  a  wall-bracket,  a  ceiling-fixture,  or  a 
lighting  novelty  is  of  prime  importance  for  it- 
self as  a  vital  spark  of  ornamentation,  but  this 
is  usually  the  exceptional  or  secondary  function 
of  fixtures. 

In  order  to  appreciate  fully  the  importance 
and  possibilities  of  light  in  the  home  it  is  neces- 
sary to  acquire  a  full  conception  of  what  may 
be  termed  the  "expressiveness  of  light. " 
This  phrase  will  be  used  so  often  and  it  de- 
scribes such  a  dominating  power  of  light  that  it 
will  be  discussed  at  length,  despite  the  danger 
of  discouraging  the  reader  at  the  outset.  It  is 
certain  that  it  would  be  easier  to  describe  it 
clearly  at  a  later  point,  but  it  is  such  a  dominant 
part  of  the  foundation  of  a  broad  and,  in  gen- 
eral, a  new  conception  of  lighting  that  its  logi- 
cal place  is  in  the  foundation  of  this  book.  A 
great  stride  will  have  been  made  as  soon  as 
the  reader  has  mastered  a  conception  of  light 
as  a  medium.  It  matters  not  what  material 
characteristics  are  conceived  concerning  it,  the 
important  feature  being  to  think  of  it  as  a  me- 


24  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

dium  similar  in  some  measure  to  such  media  as 
pigments,  paints,  wall-papers,  floor-coverings, 
etc.  For  example,  a  gray  surface  may  be  in- 
creased in  brightness  or  relative  value  by  in- 
creasing the  amount  of  light  reflected  from  it. 
This  may  be  done  in  two  ways,  namely,  by  mak- 
ing it  more  reflecting  and  by  supplying  it  with 
more  light.  A  gray  may  be  made  more  reflect- 
ing by  adding  white  to  it.  In  either  case  light  is 
of  primary  importance. 

Now  let  us  visualize  a  simple  decorative 
scheme.  For  this  purpose  the  artist  has  a  use- 
ful term,  "value,"  which  means  the  brightness 
relative  to  a  scale  formed  with  white  and 
black  respectively  at  the  extremities.  (This 
scale  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XIV)  Value  is 
measured  by  the  reflection-factor,  or  the  ability 
of  the  surface  to  reflect  light.  In  the  case  of 
colored  surfaces  the  value  is  the  brightness  com- 
ponent as  distinguished  from  the  hue.  The 
backbone  of  a  decorative  scheme  of  a  room  is 
the  distribution  of  values.  To  return  to  the 
simple  case,  let  us  assume  the  room  to  have  a 
light  gray  ceiling,  medium  gray  walls,  and  a 
dark  gray  floor-covering  under  a  certain  dis- 
tribution of  light.  If  the  distribution  of  light 


AN  EXPRESSIVE  MEDIUM          25 

is  altered,  the  distribution  of  the  values  of  the 
decorative  scheme  is  changed.  In  this  respect 
lighting  is  very  important. 

To  make  this  point  clearer,  let  us  assume  a 
white  paper  and  a  black  one.  These  represent 
the  extremes  of  values.  Inasmuch  as  all  black 
surfaces  reflect  some  light,  it  is  possible  to 
make  the  "black"  paper  appear  very  bright 
under  intense  illumination  and  the  "white" 
paper  relatively  dark  under  a  feeble  illumina- 
tion. In  fact,  by  controlling  the  quantities  of 
light  upon  the  two  surfaces  it  is  possible  to 
make  the  "black"  paper  actually  appear  white 
in  comparison  with  the  feebly  illuminated 
"white"  paper.  Thus  the  power  of  light  is 
worthy  of  consideration,  for  it  will  change 
< '  black ' '  to  white  and  '  '  white  > '  to  black. 

Now  to  return  to  the  simple  room  done  in 
grays.  It  should  be  obvious  that  by  confining 
the  direct  light  to  the  ceiling  the  remainder  of 
the  room  will  receive  only  scattered  or  second- 
ary light.  If  the  distribution  of  light  is  re- 
versed so  that  the  direct  light  is  confined  to  the 
floor,  the  walls  and  ceiling  receiving  only  feeble 
scattered  light,  the  mood  or  expression  of  the 
room  tends  to  reverse.  In  the  first  case  the 


26  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ceiling  would  be  much  brighter  than  in  the 
second  case,  whereas  the  reverse  would  be  true 
of  the  floor.  In  other  words,  the  distribution  of 
light  greatly  affects  the  relative  values  of  the 
decorative  scheme.  The  influence  is  just  as 
definite  and,  in  fact,  the  result  is  the  same  as 
that  of  an  actual  change  in  the  decoration. 

Only  values  have  been  discussed  in  the  fore- 
going, but  there  is  still  another  influence  of 
light  which  entitles  it  to  being  termed  a  "  me- 
dium." Color  is  in  light  but  not  in  objects,  so 
that  by  controlling  the  color  of  the  light  a 
powerful  influence  is  available.  A  room  may 
be  warm,  cold,  exciting,  tranquilizing,  etc.,  by 
virtue  of  the  color  of  the  light.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  objects  depend  upon  the  light. 
Furthermore,  the  distribution  of  light  of  dif- 
ferent tints  may  be  controlled.  Warm  light 
may  be  diffused  upward  and  about  the  room 
from  a  tinted  shade  or  from  tinted  lamps.  Cold 
or  unaltered  light  may  be  directed  downward. 
In  fact,  a  vast  variety  of  lighting  effects  may 
be  produced  in  a  room  with  a  fixed  decorative 
scheme. 

In   the   foregoing  a   simple   case  has   been 


AN  EXPRESSIVE  MEDIUM         27 

chosen,  but  it  should  be  evident  that  light  is  a 
powerful  and  vital  factor  in  influencing  the 
mood  or  expression  of  a  room.  In  fact,  the 
decorator's  work  is  effective  only  when  illumin- 
ated; that  is,  the  decorator's  media  are  in  real- 
ity secondary  or  reflected  lights.  Lighting 
deals  with  a  primary  medium,  and  it  should  be 
obvious  that  in  primary  light  there  are  greater 
possibilities  than  in  secondary  light.  Adding 
to  these  powerful  influences  of  light  its  marvel- 
ous property  of  mobility,  it  is  seen  that  it  is 
really  a  wonderful  medium.  By  touching  a 
switch  the  expression  of  a  room  may  be  greatly 
altered  in  an  instant.  To  accomplish  a  similar 
change  the  decorator  must  re-decorate  the  room. 
It  is  strange  that  these  powers  of  light  have 
been  so  little  appreciated. 

The  room  most  sensitive  to  lighting  is  one  of 
a  uniform  value,  that  is,  a  room  whose  ceiling, 
walls,  floor,  etc.,  are  uniformly  gray.  Booms 
in  whose  decorative  schemes  extreme  values 
have  been  used  are  least  sensitive  to  changes  in 
lighting.  In  other  words,  there  is  a  wide  dif- 
ference between  rooms  in  respect  to  their  sensi- 
tiveness to  lighting,  although  the  expression  or 


28  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

mood  of  a  room  cannot  be  so  firmly  anchored  by 
the  decorative  scheme  as  to  be  uninfluenced  by 
the  lighting. 

Before  treating  another  important  phase  of 
the  expressiveness  of  lighting  in  the  interior 
as  a  whole  it  is  necessary  to  consider  more 
minutely  the  influence  of  lighting  upon  the  ap- 
pearance of  objects.  We  see  solely  by  dis- 
tinguishing differences  in  light,  shade  and  color. 
It  is  the  variation  of  these  factors  that  models 
and  paints  an  object  or  an  interior.  A  thorough 
grasp  of  lighting  will  not  be  obtained  without 
a  painstaking  study  of  light,  shade  and  color  as 
related  to  objects  and  of  these  objects  as  re- 
lated to  the  entire  setting.  Examples  greet  ob- 
serving eyes  on  every  hand.  A  painting,  in  the 
last  analysis,  is  merely  a  distribution  of  bright- 
nesses and  colors.  The  painter  fixes  an  expres- 
sion of  light  upon  his  canvas,  but  even  this  is 
not  fixed  completely,  for  lighting  can  alter  its 
appearance  considerably.  In  reality,  the 
painter  is  a  link  between  two  lightings.  This 
is  even  more  definite  with  sculpture  and  other 
three-dimensional  objects.  The  portrait-pho- 
tographer can  produce  many  expressions  of  the 
same  human  subject  by  varying  the  lighting. 


AN  EXPKESSIVE  MEDIUM          29 

The  sculptor  models  a  form,  but  the  lighting 
gives  this  form  its  final  expression.  The  sculp- 
tor may  reproduce  the  shape  or  form  as  an  ex- 
act copy  of  the  original  as  far  as  dimensions  are 
concerned,  but  lighting  puts  the  finishing 
touches  upon  its  expression. 

These  facts  apply  as  well  to  the  ordinary  ob- 
jects in  the  home  as  to  the  products  of  the 
painter  and  sculptor.  Consider  any  three-di- 
mensional object.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that 
the  character  of  the  edge  of  a  cast  shadow  will 
depend  upon  the  solid  angle  subtended  by  the 
light-source,  that  is,  upon  the  size  and  distance 
of  the  light-source.  If  the  light-source  is  small 
or  its  distance  is  great,  the  edges  of  the  cast 
shadows  will  be  harsh;  if  it  is  large  or  near, 
they  will  be  soft  or  modulated  gradually  from 
light  to  shadow.  The  position  of  the  light- 
source  determines  the  direction  of  the  shadow 
and  the  amount  of  scattered  light  determines  the 
brightness  of  the  shadows.  These  are  factors 
of  importance  in  all  lighting  problems,  espe- 
cially those  involving  acute  vision  and  those  in 
which  the  esthetic  aspect  is  dominant, 

In  the  home  severe  shadows  should  generally 
be  avoided,  because  harshness  usually  opposes 


30  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

restful  artistic  results.  This  severity  is  over- 
come by  using  diffusing  lamps  and  shades  and 
by  providing  for  some  scattered  or  diffused 
light.  Outdoors  the  sun  represents  the  extreme 
of  directed  light  and  the  bright  dome  of  sky 
exemplifies  highly  diffused  light.  Of  course  the 
extreme  of  diffused  light  is  found  in  a  dense 
cloud  or  in  a  room  whose  ceiling,  walls  and  floor 
are  of  equal  brightness.  Indoors  the  extreme 
of  directed  light  is  represented  by  a  bare  lamp 
in  a  room  with  black  walls.  From  this  brief 
description  the  reader  should  be  able  to  under- 
stand the  details  upon  which  the  appearance  of 
objects  depends.  It  is  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive to  study,  even  casually,  the  effects  of  light- 
ing upon  the  appearance  of  objects  and  the 
molding  of  the  human  features  by  light.  These 
demonstrations  are  present  on  every  hand,  and 
it  is  only  necessary  to  open  the  consciousness 
to  observe  them. 

Nature's  landscapes  are  expressions  of  light 
which  afford  an  endless  variety  of  studies.  It 
is  interesting  to  study  these  analytically  and  to 
visit  the  same  scene  during  various  periods  of 
the  day  and  on  different  kinds  of  days.  The 
shadows  cast  outdoors  are  harshest  on  sunny 


AN  EXPRESSIVE  MEDIUM         31 

days  when  the  sky  is  a  deep  blue,  but  they  are 
seldom  dark,  because  generally  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  skylight  and  other  scattered  light  illu- 
minating them.  The  sun,  being  almost  a  point- 
source  of  light,  causes  sharpi  edges  on  the 
shadows,  and  to  this  extent  they  are  harsh. 
But  their  harshness  is  considerably  reduced 
by  their  brightness,  due  to  skylight  and  other 
scattered  light.  The  harshest  expression  of 
light  outdoors  is  found  at  midday  in  the  open, 
when  the  sky  is  deep  blue  and  the  sun  is  shining 
directly  overhead.  The  painter  chooses  such  an 
expression,  with  its  sharp  short  shadows,  to  de- 
pict the  relentless  heat  of  the  desert.  On  an 
overcast  day  the  shadows  are  indefinite,  and 
they  have  contracted  almost  to  complete  disap- 
pearance. In  fact,  the  landscape  on  such  a  day 
approaches  an  opposite  extreme  from  that  on 
a  sunny  day.  It  is  uninteresting  and  often  de- 
pressing under  these  conditions.  Between 
these  two  extremes  there  is  an  infinite  variety 
of  effects. 

If  one  studies  landscapes  from  the  viewpoint 
of  the  expressiveness  of  light,  he  is  likely  to 
come  to  the  decision  that  the  most  pleasant  dis- 
tributions of  brightness  are  those  in  which  the 


32  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

brightest  areas  lie  somewhere  between  the 
horizon  and  the  zenith.  The  most  unpleasant 
and  unnatural  expressions  of  light  are  those  in 
which  the  most  intense  brightnesses  are  below 
the  horizontal.  Those  who  have  suffered  from 
snow-blindness  will  testify  to  the  harshness  of 
brilliant  snow  seen  below  the  horizontal.  If  one 
comes  to  a  pleasant  spot  in  mid-afternoon,  he 
will  find,  in  general,  that  the  maximum  bright- 
nesses between  the  horizon  and  the  zenith  and 
the  lengthened  shadows  are  chiefly  responsible 
for  the  pleasantness.  Sitting  there  watching 
the  shadows  lengthen  and  become  relatively 
brighter  as  the  sun  approaches  the  horizon,  he 
notes  the  approach  toward  tranquility.  If  he 
is  interested  in  lighting,  he  draws  conclusions 
which  are  of  great  value  in  the  creation  of  pleas- 
ant lighting  conditions.  Perhaps,  if  he  visits 
this  charming  spot  at  noon  on  a  sunny  day,  he 
is  surprised  to  find  the  charm  is  no  longer  there. 
The  scene  may  be  harsh,  but  as  the  sun  rides  on 
its  downward  slope  that  familiar  pleasantness 
begins  to  appear.  If  the  sky  becomes  hazy  and 
the  sun  is  finally  blotted  out,  the  charm  and 
pleasantness  disappear.  The  scene  becomes 
uninteresting  and,  as  the  sky  darkens,  it  may 


AN  EXPRESSIVE  MEDIUM          33 

even      become      depressing.     Fickle      nature 
changes  her  mood  with  the  lighting  so  emphatic- 
ally that  the  observer  is  sure  to  become  con- 
vinced of  the  power  of  lighting.     Surely  light  is 
an  expressive  medium  whose  powers  are  con- 
stantly being  demonstrated  in  nature's  scenes. 
Bringing  the  fruits  of  these  observations  in- 
doors, we  find  a  vast  field  of  application.     The 
effect  of  lighting  upon  objects,  ornamentation, 
and  furnishings  as  a  whole  assumes  a  new  im- 
portance.    Some  diffused  light  in  a  room  is 
necessary  to  forestall  harshness,  but  totally  in- 
direct lighting  is  now  seen  to  produce  an  un- 
interesting  effect.    Under   such   a   system   of 
lighting  the  ceiling  is  brightly  illuminated,  and 
in  the  absence  of  any  "sun,"  that  is,  directed 
light,  the  ceiling  simulates  a  large  expanse  of 
overcast  sky.    Jewels  lose  their  glitter,  objects 
are  insufficiently  modelled,  faces  are  almost  ex- 
pressionless, and  the  whole  interior  is  nearly  de- 
void of  character.    No  strength  of  expression 
remains.     On  reversing  the  effect  by  providing 
a  powerful  directed  light,  the  shadows  become 
harsh  and  the  ceiling  may  be  depressingly  dark. 
The  light-source  under  these  conditions  usually 
will  be  glaring  and  the  condition  will  be  ex- 


34  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tremely  unpleasant.  By  properly  shading  the 
light-source,  by  diffusing  the  downward  light, 
and  by  adding  the  proper  amount  of  diffused  up- 
ward light,  the  lighting  effect  may  be  made 
pleasant. 

However,  there  is  a  great  lesson  to  be  learned 
outdoors  and  in  the  study  of  esthetics,  namely, 
that  symmetry  is  not  always  desirable.  In 
fundamental  lines  and  areas  symmetry  is  im- 
portant, unless  a  sense  of  balance  is  obtained 
in  another  manner,  but  from  the  standpoint  of 
lighting  effect  in  such  a  room  as  the  living-room, 
where  balance  in  furnishing  is  obtained  with- 
out symmetry,  the  best  lighting  effects  are 
usually  those  which  are  asymmetrical.  In  such 
a  room  a  central  ceiling-fixture  produces  a  sym- 
metrical and  monotonous  lighting  effect  which 
the  finer  sensibility  will  gladly  replace  by  the 
delightful  variety  and  asymmetry  obtained  by 
means  of  portable  lamps.  Of  course,  if  ceiling 
fixtures  are  employed,  they  must  be  hung  with 
consideration  for  symmetry  of  ceiling.  To 
place  them  otherwise  would  be  a  greater  viola- 
tion of  the  laws  of  esthetics  than  the  monoto- 
nous symmetry  of  lighting.  However,  the  two 
laws  being  opposed,  it  is  best  to  eliminate  ceil- 


AN  EXPRESSIVE  MEDIUM         35 

ing-fixtures  wherever  possible,  if  the  most  gen- 
erally acceptable  lighting  is  to  be  obtained. 
This  point  is  further  emphasized  in  the  light- 
ing of  the  living-room  (Chapter  VI),  but  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  in  the  dining-room  sym- 
metry of  location  of  the  lighting-fixture  and 
symmetry  of  the  setting  and  of  lighting  effect 
operate  hand  in  hand  to  the  desired  end,  as 
shown  in  Chapter  VII. 

There  is  another  comparison  between  pig- 
ments and  light,  that  is,  between  secondary  and 
primary  light.  The  decorator  has  at  his  com- 
mand a  range  of  values  whose  extremes  are 
commercial  whites  and  blacks.  These  repre- 
sent a  range  in  contrast  of  about  thirty  to  one, 
respectively.  In  other  words,  the  whitest  paint 
or  wall-paper  is  only  about  thirty  times  brighter 
than  the  darkest  so-called  "black."  The 
decorator's  effects  are  limited  to  this  range  in 
values,  with,  of  course,  all  the  possibilities  of 
color  within  these  extremes  and  the  superposi- 
tion of  ornamentation.  If  he  desires  a  greater 
range  of  brightness,  he  may  utilize  lighting  as 
previously  discussed,  but  even  beyond  this, 
light-sources  themselves  are  available.  Light 
as  a  medium  is  capable  of  an  extreme  range  of 


36  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

values,  from  the  brightnesses  of  light-sources 
to  the  low  values  of  feebly  illuminated  surfaces 
or  to  darkness  itself.  Thus  light  becomes 
vastly  superior  to  pigments  as  a  medium.  Fix- 
tures may  be  utilized  for  themselves  alone,  and 
as  ornaments  they  are  throbbing  with  life,  as 
compared  to  most  bric-a-brac.  Although  great 
emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  lighting  effect 
in  the  room  as  a  whole,  it  is  not  the  intention 
to  forget  the  expressiveness  of  fixtures  as  orna- 
ments. A  lighted  lamp  or  wall-bracket  may  be 
a  very  attractive  detail  in  a  room.  In  this  par- 
ticular respect,  color  can  play  a  prominent  role. 
Its  symbolism,  its  psychological  effect,  and  the 
associations  which  it  arouses  may  be  utilized  ef- 
fectively. These  aspects  are  discussed  in  later 
chapters. 

While  considering  the  expressiveness  of  light, 
there  is  a  fruitful  field  for  study  in  the  day- 
lighting  indoors.  In  general,  it  may  be  stated 
that  artificial  light  is  incomparably  superior  to 
natural  light  indoors,  but  the  influence  of  win- 
dows, of  snow  upon  the  ground,  of  a  beam  of 
sunlight,  etc.,  contribute  daily  lessons  in  light- 
ing to  the  observant.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
the  pleasant  and  unpleasant  features  of  natural 


AN  EXPRESSIVE  MEDIUM         37 

lighting  indoors  and  to  apply  the  knowledge  to 
artificial  lighting  which  is  so  readily  controlled. 
In  fact,  in  this  control  lies  the  great  superiority 
of  artificial  light. 

In  the  foregoing  it  has  been  the  aim  to  give 
the  reader  a  glimpse  of  light  as  a  decorative  or 
expressive  medium,  or,  more  broadly,  as  a  psy- 
chological factor.  This  is  a  generally  new  con- 
ception of  light;  at  least,  it  is  a  much  broader 
function  than  is  usually  accorded  to  it. 
Throughout  the  chapters  which  follow  the  ex- 
pressiveness of  light  will  be  touched  upon,  so 
that  it  appears  unnecessary  to  dwell  further 
upon  this  property  of  lighting  at  this  point. 
To  summarize  this  entire  viewpoint  of  light- 
ing, the  metaphorical  phrase  "  painting  with 
light"  appears  most  appropriate.  This  does 
not  include  only  the  tinted  lights,  but  also  the 
distribution  of  light  which  determines  the  gen- 
eral arrangement  of  light  and  shade,  or  values. 
The  broadest  and  perhaps  the  simplest  concept 
of  lighting  from  the  decorative,  esthetic,  or, 
more  broadly,  the  psychological  standpoint  is  to 
consider  light  as  a  medium,  which,  guided  by 
the  artistic  instinct  of  the  lighting  artist,  is  cap- 
able of  casting  over  an  interior  a  magical 


38  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

drapery  of  light,  shade  and  color  of  far  greater 
effectiveness  and  mobility  than  the  media  em- 
ployed by  the  decorator.  Every  person  capable 
of  decorating  and  furnishing  a  home  artistically 
is  capable  of  extracting  from  light  some  of  its 
potentiality.  It  is  hoped  that  the  reader,  at 
least  in  spare  moments,  will  raise  the  veil  of 
indifference  or  unconsciousness  from  his  eyes 
and  will  observe  and  analyze  the  expressions  of 
light  on  every  hand.  It  is  a  fascinating  recrea- 
tion which  not  only  leads  to  the  conception  of 
the  powers  of  light,  but  opens  the  doorway  to 
a  magical  world  which  is  unseen  by  the  multi- 
tude. 


Ill 

VARIETY THE   SPICE   OF   LIGHTING 

MONOTONY  is  endured  by  us  only  by  vir- 
tue of  voluntary  or  involuntary  respect 
for  law,  whether  the  latter  be  natural  or 
economic,  physical  or  statutory.  It  is  a  yoke 
which  chafes  those  who  must  bow  to  routine 
work.  It  makes  penal  institutions  of  prisons. 
It  causes  ill-temper  in  the  winter-quarters  of 
the  arctic  explorer.  It  is  the  bane  of  the  life 
of  the  housewife  in  her  cyclic  activities  and  un- 
changeable surroundings.  It  pursues  man  in- 
cessantly and  is  only  forestalled  by  the  creative 
mind  which  rises  to  the  rescue.  Styles,  decora- 
tion, ornamentation,  golf,  baseball,  and 
"movies"  are  among  the  vast  array  of  inven- 
tions which  have  been  devised  to  defeat  monot- 
ony. Some  minds  are  sufficiently  alert  and 
imaginative  to  provide  relief  regardless  of  the 
surroundings,  but,  after  all,  the  environment  is 
a  dominating  influence  upon  the  mental  state 

39 


40  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

of  human  beings.  To  escape  monotony  easily 
and  inexpensively  should  be  one  of  the  aims  of 
the  householder,  if  he  is  to  make  his  house  a 
home  of  happiness.  The  foregoing  is  another 
way  of  stating  that  variety  is  the  spice  of  life, 
and  those  who  gain  a  full  appreciation  of  the 
possibilities  of  lighting  will  recognize  in  light- 
ing an  agency  capable  of  providing  much 
variety  in  the  monotonous  surroundings  of  the 
home. 

Although  the  settings  in  the  home  are  more 
or  less  fixed  and  monotonous,  an  element  of 
variety  is  obtained  by  means  of  decorations, 
furnishings,  pictures  and  various  ornaments. 
Such  a  setting,  although  fixed,  does  not  become 
as  monotonous  as  plain  symmetrical  surround- 
ings. There  are,  then,  two  kinds  of  variety — 
one  which  applies  to  the  details  of  an  environ- 
ment and  one  which  applies  to  the  scene  as  a 
whole.  By  varying  the  lighting  effect  in  the 
room,  not  only  are  the  details  altered  in  appear- 
ance and  relative  conspicuity  but  the  expression 
or  mood  of  the  room  is  changed.  The  house- 
wife attempts  to  overcome  monotony  by  re- 
arranging the  furniture,  and  is  successful  to 
some  extent.  A  vase  of  flowers  is  welcomed  for 


THE  SPICE  OF  LIGHTING          41 

its  new  note.    A  fire  in  the  fireplace  occasion- 
ally achieves  this  result.    But  finally,  before 
they  are  worn  out,  articles  of  furniture  are 
relegated  to  the  attic  and  draperies  are  dis- 
carded  to   be   replaced   by  new   things.     The 
soiled  wall-coverings  are  an  excuse  for  a  call 
upon  the  decorator  and  for  an  additional  drain 
upon    the    bank    account,    when    the    cleaners 
would  answer  the  demands  of  sanitation.     On 
every  hand  in  the  home  the  war  against  monot- 
ony is  waged,  and  usually  at  considerable  cost. 
However,  lighting  is  ever  ready  at  the  pressure 
of  a  switch  to  add  a  new  note  or  a  new  mood, 
if  the  facilities  are  provided.    It  is  a  powerful 
ally  in  the  constant  struggle  against  monotony. 
The  ease  with  which  considerable  variety  may 
be  introduced  into  the  home  by  means  of  light- 
ing   is    explained    in    various    chapters.     The 
mobility  of  light  is  the  property  which  gives 
rise  to  the  phrase,  "variety  is  the  spice  of  light- 
ing. "     One  cannot  look  deeply  into  the  pos- 
sibilities of  lighting  without  recognizing  this 
property  as  that  which,  added  to  the  other  char- 
acteristics of  light,  makes  lighting  a  powerful 
medium  in  making  a  house  an  interesting  and 
pleasant  home.    Of  all  lighting   systems,  na- 


42  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ture  's  lighting  is  the  least  monotonous,  and  this 
is  largely  due  to  its  perpetual  changeableness. 
The  shadows  lengthen  and  shorten  slowly  but 
surely.  The  relative  amount  of  skylight  and 
sunlight  change  from  moment  to  moment.  The 
seasons  contribute  their  influence  upon  the 
variety  of  nature's  lighting.  The  combination 
of  all  these  ever  restless  elements,  upon  which 
are  superposed  the  charming  variety  of  tints 
toward  the  end  of  the  day,  results  in  a  daily 
rendition  in  nature  of  a  marvelous  symphony 
of  light. 

When  nature's  lighting  is  restricted  as  it  is 
indoors  by  the  artificial  shackles  constructed 
by  man,  its  changeableness  is  suppressed  and 
it  no  longer  exhibits  the  finer  degrees  of  variety. 
For  example,  at  a  north  window  nature 's  light- 
ing may  become  cold,  uninteresting  and  monot- 
onous. However,  in  the  great  outdoors,  where 
nature  is  free,  the  lighting  varies  from  moment 
to  moment,  from  day  to  day,  and  from  season  to 
season.  Who  has  not  felt  the  joyful  expression 
of  nature  on  a  sunny  day,  or  has  not  responded 
sympathetically  to  the  depression  of  an  over- 
cast sky?  The  magnitude  of  nature  is  great 
enough  to  play  an  important  role  in  the  making 


THE  SPICE  OF  LIGHTING          43 

of  a  human  mood.  However,  the  latter  usually 
wishes  to  dominate  the  artificial  setting  indoors. 
For  this  reason  facilities  for  obtaining  a  degree 
of  variety  in  lighting  should  be  provided.  Of 
course  the  unpleasantness  of  nature  would  not 
be  reproduced ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  function  of  the 
artist  to  pick  and  choose.  His  aim  must  be  to 
create  a  fairer  world  than  the  imperfect  un- 
satisfactory reality.  Nature  exhibits  much  of 
interest  in  lighting,  but  there  is  bad  with  the 
good.  The  lighting  artist,  with  utmost  control 
over  artificial  light,  should  choose  the  good  and 
improve  upon  it. 

In  order  to  visualize  the  possibilities  of  light- 
ing in  a  given  room  it  is  necessary  to  have 
imagination  reinforced  with  a  knowledge  of 
what  light  can  do.  Light  travels  in  straight 
lines  from  a  source  and  is  refracted,  reflected, 
or  scattered,  depending  upon  the  surface  or 
substance  which  intercepts  it.  These  are 
elements  in  its  control  which  can  be  utilized,  but 
lighting  will  never  be  developed  as  an  exact 
science,  because  it  has  so  many  esthetic  or  psy- 
chological possibilities.  Its  use  as  an  artistic 
or  psychological  medium  must  always  depend 
upon  taste  and  sensibility,  if  it  is  to  be  utilized 


44  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

to  an  extent  befitting  its  potentiality.  How- 
ever, the  artistic  sensibility  cannot  succeed 
without  a  foundation  of  simple  facts  pertaining 
to  the  laws  of  light.  These  are  introduced 
here  and  there  throughout  the  various  chapters. 
In  planning  the  decorative  scheme  and  the 
furnishings  for  a  home,  satisfactory  results  are 
obtained  only  by  maintaining  in  the  mind's  eye 
a  picture  of  the  desired  completed  result  and  by 
linking  one  by  one  the  various  elements  of  the 
whole.  Efforts  in  such  directions  will  not  be 
crowned  with  success  and  satisfaction  without 
beginning  with  a  visualized  picture  of  the  re- 
sult desired.  This  requires  imagination  and 
some  serious  thought  before  beginning.  All 
this  applies  to  any  lighting  effect,  but  if  variety 
is  to  be  introduced,  the  imagination  must  see 
the  various  pictures.  Variety  in  lighting  is  at- 
tained by  obtaining  different  distributions  and 
tints  of  light  and  by  varying  the  combinations 
of  these.  Where  symmetry  is  the  keynote  of  a 
setting,  variety  in  lighting  must  not  be  obtained 
at  the  sacrifice  of  this  dominant  principle.  In 
a  dining-room  symmetry  is  usually  the  domin- 
ant note,  but  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  variety  of 
lighting  effects  and  still  preserve  symmetry. 


THE  SPICE  OF  LIGHTING         45 

This  is  illustrated  in  Chapter  VII.  In  living- 
rooms  variety  is  best  obtained  by  means  of 
portables,  and  even  a  kind  of  variety  can  be  ef- 
fected by  means  of  an  upward  component  from 
a  floor-lamp  in  a  corner  or  at  one  side  of 
the  room.  There  is  more  variety  in  a  setting 
when  the  lighting  effect  is  asymmetrical  than 
when  it  is  symmetrical.  For  example,  let  us 
visualize  a  small  room  such  as  a  den  or  even 
a  reception-hall.  How  much  more  charming  is 
the  lighting  effect  from  a  portable  lamp  at  one 
side  of  the  room  than  that  due  to  the  common- 
place central  ceiling-fixture.  There  is  a  kind  of 
variety  present  in  the  former  case  which  is  re- 
placed by  monotony  in  the  second.  In  general, 
symmetry  as  a  keynote  in  a  setting  may  be  quite 
satisfactory  in  certain  rooms,  but  it  is  less  de- 
sirable in  those  rooms  which  are  occupied  a 
great  deal. 

Every  reader,  if  he  will  pause  to  reflect  upon 
his  experiences,  will  doubtless  recall  his  own 
rebellion  from  the  monotony  which  greeted  him 
as  he  pressed  the  single  wall-switch  in  his  liv- 
ing-room or  den  each  night.  How  interesting 
and  delightful  it  would  have  been  if  on  some 
occasion  he  could  have  pressed  a  magic  switch 


46  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

which  would  have  given  him  another  environ- 
ment. There  is  much  of  such  magic  in  an  ade- 
quate lighting  system  in  the  home.  Although 
the  feats  of  Aladdin 's  lamp  cannot  be  expected, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  two  lighting  ef- 
fects in  a  room  are  twice  as  many  as  one. 
Furthermore,  it  is  always  possible  and  often  de- 
sirable to  combine  the  two  effects.  Thus  with 
two  circuits  providing  different  lighting  effects, 
three  different  effects  are  obtainable.  From 
three  circuits  six  combinations  are  available. 

As  discussed  later  in  detail,  it  should  be  one 
of  the  aims  in  wiring  a  house  and  in  choosing 
fixtures  to  provide  for  as  many  distinct  effects 
as  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  cost.  For 
example,  in  providing  for  and  purchasing  a  two- 
circuit  fixture  it  is  just  as  easy  to  have  each 
circuit  give  a  distinct  effect.  Instead  of  a 
shower  of  pendent  shades  with  one  switch  con- 
trolling four  of  them  and  the  other  connected 
to  the  central  one,  the  fixture  may  be  a  combina- 
tion of  pendent  shades  and  an  inverted  bowl, 
such  as  is  illustrated  in  Figure  1.  Lighting- 
fixtures  which  provide  such  variety  are  to  be 
found  if  patiently  sought,  but  it  is  necessary  to 
appreciate  the  desirability  of  such  fixtures  or 


THE  SPICE  OF  LIGHTING 


47 


one  will  not  become  a  searcher  after  them.  It 
is  not  the  intention  to  discuss  details  in  this 
chapter,  except  sufficiently  to  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  variety 
and  the  ease  with 
which  it  may  be  ob- 
tained in  lighting. 
The  greatest  possibil- 
ities are  to  be  found 
in  different  distribu- 
tions of  light,  but 
very  charming  effects 
may  be  obtained  with 
tinted  light. 

Although  it  is  easy 
to  design  fixtures 
which  provide  two  or 
more  distributions  of 
light,  they  are  rela- 

FIG.  1 — A  commercial  fixture  with 

tlVely    rare.       Fixture      two   circuits   from   each   of   which   a 

distinct  lighting  effect  is  obtained 

designers,  manufac- 
turers and  dealers  as  a  rule  have  not  awak- 
ened to  the  potentiality  of  light.  They,  too, 
are  lingering  in  the  past  century  of  costly 
and  inadequate  light.  It  is  true  that  to  some 
extent  they  have  sensed  the  necessity  for  adapt- 


48  LIGHTING  THE  HOME     • 

ing  fixtures  to  modern  lamps  and  to  shade  the 
bright  light-sources  to  some  degree.  But  these 
are  glaring  necessities  which  could  not  escape 
their  attention.  However,  if  the  householder 
will  search  for  and  demand  the  fixtures  which 
provide  a  degree  of  variety,  he  will  obtain  them. 
If  the  fixture-dealer  does  not  appreciate  the  pos- 
sibilities of  lighting,  at  least  he  awakens  readily 
to  demand. 

The  charming  effects  of  tinted  light  can  be 
obtained  very  simply  by  tinted  lamps,  but  it  is 
not  easy  to  procure  tinted  lamps.  The  future 
will  witness  the  introduction  of  these,  because 
they  can  be  made.  They  have  such  possibili- 
ties in  interior  lighting  that  the  light-user  is  cer- 
tain to  demand  them.  We  utilize  color  so  ex- 
tensively in  dress,  decoration  and  furnishing 
that  mankind  will  not  long  do  without  it  in  light- 
ing, inasmuch  as  it  can  be  very  easily  intro- 
duced. In  other  chapters  colored  light  and 
means  for  obtaining  it  are  discussed. 

There  are  many  novelties  which  are  capable 
of  introducing  variety  in  lighting.  These  must 
be  conceived,  designed  and  built  by  the  house- 
holder, or  under  his  direction,  if  he  desires 
them  at  present,  for  creative  lighting  artists  are 


THE  SPICE  OF  LIGHTING          49 

rarely  available.  The  present  age  should  wit- 
ness the  development  of  such  artists,  for  they 
have  a  field  as  definite  as  that  of  the  decorator. 
An  artificial  window  or  other  skylight,  a  false 
ceiling  of  lattice,  a  flower-box  or  urn,  are  ex- 
amples of  such  novelties.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
keep  the  mind  in  the  ordinary  rut  in  planning 
lighting.  Perhaps  a  shade  on  a  portable  lamp 
which  throws  light  upon  the  wall  is  just  the  ef- 
fect desired  for  a  certain  nook.  There  may  be 
uninteresting  places  in  the  larger  houses  which 
require  only  the  expenditure  of  some  ingenuity 
and  forethought  to  be  made  into  charming  nooks 
by  an  unusual  use  of  artificial  light. 

Originality  has  no  more  promising  field  than 
that  of  lighting,  because  few  creative  artists 
have  invaded  this  greatly  expanded  field.  In 
fact,  residence  lighting  has  progressed  very 
little,  compared  with  many  other  arts  combining 
utilitarian  and  esthetic  aspects.  Excepting  in- 
creases in  intensity  of  illumination  and  the  ten- 
dency to  shade  or  to  conceal  the  modern  bright 
light-sources,  the  lighting  of  the  home  has  not 
advanced  materially  in  many  decades.  The  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  light  used  in  the  home 
came  about  automatically  by  the  increased 


50  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

candle-power  or  luminous  output  of  lamps,  and 
the  shading  of  bright  light-sources  has  been  be- 
gun through  sheer  necessity  for  protection  from 
the  blinding  glare.  Eesidence  lighting  has  been 
permitted  to  drift  in  the  hands  of  electrical  con- 
tractors, fixture  manufacturers  and  dealers  who 
are  mechanics  or  merchants.  Surely  they  are 
not  generally  appreciative  of  the  potentiality 
of  lighting.  There  is  evidence  that  those  who 
are  in  touch  with  the  elements  which  comprise 
the  lighting-plant  of  the  home  are  bestirring 
themselves,  but  the  builder  and  the  electrical 
contractor  will  never  become  lighting  artists. 
Still  they  are  in  a  strategic  position  to  blight 
or  to  bless  a  home,  for  wiring  is  a  fundamental 
phase  in  the  evolution  of  lighting  effects.  The 
most  reasonable  safeguard  is  the  possession  of 
knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  possibilities 
of  lighting  by  the  householder,. the  architect  and 
the  decorator. 


IV 

SAFEGUARDING   VISION 

IT  has  already  been  stated  that  a  true  esthetic 
sensibility  is  a  safeguard  against  lighting 
conditions  which  are  harmful  to  vision ;  that  is, 
a  lighting  effect  cannot  be  artistic  if  it  is  glar- 
ing and  discomforting.  However,  improper 
lighting  conditions  and  the  misuse  of  light  and 
the  eyes  are  so  effective  in  causing  eye-strain 
and  permanent  injury  to  the  eyes  that  this  book 
would  not  be  fulfilling  its  purpose  if  a  chapter 
were  not  devoted  to  this  phase  of  the  subject. 
Eyesight  is  so  important  and  so  easily  injured 
that  too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  its 
conservation.  Although  it  is  not  difficult  to  ob- 
tain fixtures  which  are  thoroughly  satisfactory 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  conservation  of 
vision,  there  are  many  in  use  in  homes  which 
are  a  menace  to  eyesight.  It  is  easy  to  state 
that  all  lamps  should  be  shaded  from  the  field 
of  view  and  to  add  certain  corollaries  in  re- 
Si 


52  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

gard  to  the  correct  position  as  to  the  light- 
source,  but  these  simple  statements  do  not  ap- 
pear to  be  effective. 

The  Creator  bestowed  upon  the  human  race  a 
wonderful  organ  of  vision.  It  withstands  abuse 
uncomplainingly,  but  herein  lies  the  difficulty. 
Its  marvelous  endurance  to  harmful  lighting 
conditions  becomes  the  weak  point  in  its  design, 
because  the  damage  is  discovered  too  late.  The 
eye  complains  through  other  organs  much  of 
the  time,  and  the  seat  of  the  trouble  can  be 
diagnosed  only  by  the  specialist.  Further- 
more, the  eye  evolved  outdoors ;  in  fact,  man 
has  just  come  indoors.  Only  in  recent  decades 
has  mankind  lived  and  worked  long  hours  under 
artificial  lighting.  These  hours  are  becoming 
longer,  and  the  importance  of  proper  lighting 
is  increasing.  Outdoors,  where  vision  evolved, 
there  is  an  abundance  of  light.  The  primary 
light-source,  the  sun,  is  so  intensely  bright  that 
the  eyes  cannot  withstand  its  glare.  Man  is 
compelled  to  avoid  looking  at  it.  The  sky  is 
a  harmless  source  of  light  under  outdoor  con- 
ditions, and  annoying  contrasts  are  relatively 
rare.  Under  adaptation  to  intense  illumination 
the  eyes  are  not  so  easily  annoyed  by  conditions 


SAFEGUARDING  VISION  53 

which  are  glaring  indoors.  Owing  to  these  rea- 
sons, man  has  become  indifferent  to  lighting  and 
does  not  recognize  conditions  which  are  harm- 
ful. 

Conditions  which  cause  eye-strain  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  state  of  adaptation  of  the 
eye,  so  it  is  difficult  to  define  in  measurable 
quantities  the  limits  of  these  conditions.  Ex- 
cessive brightness,  like  that  of  the  sun  or  of 
modern  artificial  light-sources,  are  annoying 
and  harmful  to  vision.  The  brightness  of  the 
sky  is  taken,  more  or  less  arbitrarily,  as  the 
desirable  upper  limit  of  brightness.  The 
brightness  of  the  surroundings  have  a  great  in- 
fluence upon  the  glare  of  a  light-source.  For 
example,  a  lighted  match  in  a  room  painted 
black  or  a  lighted  lantern  outdoors  on  a  dark 
night  is  quite  glaring.  However,  a  lighted  in- 
candescent lamp  when  viewed  against  the  bright 
sky  in  the  daytime  is  not  very  glaring.  Never- 
theless, the  bright  image  on  the  retina  is  ex- 
hausting the  physiological  reaction  unneces- 
sarily. The  type  of  glare  due  to  excessive 
brightness  is  blinding  for  some  time  after  the 
light-source  is  out  of  the  field  of  vision,  and  this 
temporary  blindness  has  been  the  cause  of  many 


54  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

accidents.  Unshaded  light-sources  should  not 
be  tolerated  in  the  home.  Even  exposed  frosted 
lamps  are  glaring  under  most  conditions. 
Shades  should  be  dense  enough  to  reduce  the 
brightness  of  the  fixtures  within  the  limits  of 
tolerance. 

Excessive  contrast,  which  in  a  sense  is  similar 
to  the  foregoing,  causes  eye-strain.  A  bright- 
ness which  is  quite  endurable  amid  light  sur- 
roundings may  be  quite  discomforting  amid 
dark  surroundings.  The  contrast  of  black  type 
on  white  paper  is  about  as  extreme  as  we  would 
care  to  encounter  continually  in  reading.  A 
wall-bracket  which  may  be  viewed  with  comfort 
against  a  light  or  medium  gray  wall  is  likely  to 
be  glaring  against  a  dark  background  such  as 
dark  wall-paper  or  darkly  finished  woodwork. 
Despite  this,  brackets  with  frosted  lamps  are 
found  in  many  homes  installed  on  a  panelled 
background  of  dark  woodwork  or  other  wall- 
covering. A  decorative  fixture  which  is  too 
bright  may  be  improved  by  providing  denser 
shades  or  lamps  of  lower  candle-power.  In 
general,  fixtures  viewed  against  dark  back- 
grounds are  glaring,  even  though  the  brightness 
is  very  low,  for  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 


SAFEGUARDING  VISION  55 

contrast  is  too  great.  But  there  is  little  in 
favor  of  dark  backgrounds  in  the  home,  for  they 
usually  contribute  toward  a  depressing  effect. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  compare  the  bright- 
nesses of  various  light-sources,  with  the  under- 
standing that  the  values  given  are  only  ap- 
proximate. They  vary  considerably,  so  that  ap- 
proximate mean  values  are  given.  In  fact,  only 
the  order  of  magnitude  is  of  interest. 

EELATIVE  BRIGHTNESSES  OP  LIGHT-SOURCES 

Average  sky 1 

Moon  at  zenith    1 

Frosted  tungsten  lamp   (25-watt)    3 

Kerosene   flame    7 

Gas-mantle 15. 

Tungsten  filaments  (vacuum  lamps)    50# 

Tungsten  filaments   (gas-filled  lamps) 1,500 

Carbon  arc  (crater)    50,000 

Sun  at  zenith  500,000 

It  is  seen  that  the  sun  is  very  bright,  com- 
pared with  the  sky,  and  that  the  latter  is  of  a 
low  brightness,  compared  with  artificial  light- 
sources. 

Light  may  be  glaring  by  virtue  of  its  quantity, 
but  there  is  a  common  misconception  in  regard 
to  this.  For  example,  complaints  are  often 


56  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

heard  that  an  artificial  lighting  is  too  intense. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  intensity  of  illumina- 
tion outdoors  is  usually  thousands  of  times 
greater  than  that  ordinarily  encountered  in 
artificial  lighting.  Commonly,  when  a  room  is 
considered  to  be  over-lighted,  it  is  merely  glar- 
ing because  of  exposed  light-sources.  Quant- 
ity of  light  alone  is  not  discomforting  to  vision, 
when  the  eyes  are  adapted  to  the  proper  level 
of  illumination.  When  one  enters  a  lighted 
room  after  long  exposure  to  darkness,  the  eyes 
are  blinded  until  they  have  time  to  become 
adapted.  In  fact,  adaptation  is  an  important 
factor  in  vision,  and  by  this  function  the  eyes 
are  capable  of  operating  satisfactorily  through- 
out a  very  extensive  range  of  brightnesses  of 
illumination  intensities.  Again,  the  bright- 
nesses outdoors  on  a  starlit  night  and  those  out- 
doors at  noon  on  a  sunny  summer  day  repre- 
sent a  range  of  hundreds  of  thousands.  Under 
proper  conditions  the  eye  will  function  com- 
fortably throughout  this  tremendous  range  of 
illumination  intensities. 

More  harm  arises  from  insufficient  illumina- 
tion than  from  high  intensities.  In  the  sum- 
mertime, as  one  reads  on  the  porch  after  sun- 


SAFEGUARDING  VISION  57 

set,  he  will  observe  that  as  twilight  deepens  he 
brings  the  page  closer  and  closer  to  the  eyes, 
until  finally  it  is  too  close  to  read  without  very 
apparent  muscular  discomfort.  Under  con- 
stant strain  due  to  insufficient  illumination  the 
eyes  become  nearsighted.  In  fact,  a  similar  ef- 
fect is  noticeable  under  glaring  lighting  condi- 
tions. Glossy  paper  is  also  annoying,  because 
its  smooth  surface  acts  somewhat  like  a  mirror. 
The  images  of  the  light-sources  outside  the  field 
of  vision  are  indistinctly  reflected  from  the 
paper.  These  are  causes  of  eye-strain  and  such 
defects  as  nearsightedness.  Where  school 
children  are  required  to  read  fine  print  on 
glossy  paper  under  glaring  or  insufficient  light- 
ing, nearsightedness  increases.  The  eyes  of 
these  young  persons  are  immature  and  suscept- 
ible to  permanent  malformation.  In  the  home 
these  causes  of  eye-strain  should  be  eliminated 
before  the  esthetic  features  of  lighting  are  given 
attention.  However,  as  already  stated,  there 
can  be  no  glare  in  a  thoroughly  artistic  lighting 
effect.  The  eyes  may  be  misused  under  any 
conditions  if  knowledge  and  care  are  not  exer- 
cised, and  it  is  deplorable  that  such  misuse  is 
common. 


58  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

This  suggests  an  interesting  example  of  a 
misconception  of  art.  The  bespangled  fixtures 
of  the  Louis  XIV  period  fitted  appropriately 
the  gorgeous  splendor  of  that  time.  Catering 
to  our  weakness  (and  his  own)  for  copying  by- 
gone art,  instead  of  creating  new  styles,  the  fix- 
ture designer  reproduces  those  cut-glass  fix- 
tures. As  objects  they  may  be  beautiful  and  as 
fixtures  used  with  candles  a  few  centuries  ago 
they  would  be  delightfully  scintillating.  How- 
ever, quite  unconscious  of  the  law  of  appro- 
priateness and  of  the  enormously  greater 
brightnesses  of  modern  light-sources,  the  archi- 
tect, decorator,  or  some  one  else,  places  our 
modern  lamps  amid  the  crystals  of  glass.  The 
glittering  points  of  light  are  now  a  thousand 
times  brighter  than  they  were  when  this  period 
style  was  born.  They  are  glaring  and  unbear- 
able. They  are  also  inartistic,  despite  the  fidel- 
ity with  which  their  dimensions  and  details  have 
been  copied.  Such  errors  are  committed  in  the 
name  of  art,  but  the  result  is  no  longer  art. 

Although  the  sky,  when  viewed  outdoors,  may 
not  be  annoying  to  the  eyes,  it  is  not  uncommon 
indoors  to  find  a  patch  of  sky  seen  through  a 
window  to  be  very  glaring.  This  is  a  good 


SAFEGUARDING  VISION  59 

example  of  the  effect  of  environment  and  adap- 
tation. The  eyes  indoors  are  adapted  to  much 
lower  brightnesses  than  outdoors,  and  the  con- 
trast between  the  patch  of  sky  and  the  adjacent 
walls  is  so  great  as  to  be  annoying.  This  is  a 
common  cause  of  eye-strain  indoors. 

Complaints  are  often  heard  against  the  harm- 
ful effect  of  the  ultra-violet  or  actinic  rays 
emitted  by  a  light-source.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  certain  of  these  rays  are  destructive  to 
animal  tissue,  but  ordinary  glass  does  not  per- 
mit these  harmful  rays  to  pass.  Of  course  ab- 
sorption is  to  some  extent  a  relative  term,  and 
therefore  if  these  rays  are  intense  enough,  as 
in  certain  industrial  processes,  perhaps  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  them  may  pass  through  ordin- 
ary glass.  However,  there  is  not  the  slightest 
reason  for  concern  about  such  rays  in  illumin- 
ants  used  in  the  home.  If  the  eyes  are  being  in- 
jured in  the  home,  it  is  not  due  to  the  light,  but 
to  a  misuse  of  it  and  of  the  eyes.  There  are 
more  ultra-violet  rays  in  sunlight  than  in  the 
illuminants  used  in  the  home,  and  inasmuch  as 
the  intensity  of  sunlight  is  so  enormously 
greater  than  that  encountered  in  the  home,  there 
is  a  great  deal  more  to  fear  from  sunlight 


60  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

than  from  artificial  illumination  indoors.  Inas- 
much as  the  eyes  do  not  suffer  harm  under 
ordinary  conditions  outdoors,  there  is  little  rea- 
son for  suspecting  the  presence  of  abundant 
harmful  rays  in  the  illuminants  commonly  en- 
countered indoors.  Of  course  snow-blindness 
is  common,  but  this  is  due  to  the  enormous 
amount  of  sunlight  reflected  from  below  the 
eyes,  and  it  is  usually  suffered  at  high  altitudes 
or  under  atmospheric  conditions  which  permit 
an  abundance  of  the  harmful  rays  to  reach  the 
earth's  surface.  Furthermore,  snow  reflects 
the  ultra-violet  rays  as  well  as  the  visible  rays, 
and  on  clear  days  this  amount  is  enormous. 
The  reflection-factor  of  bare  earth  and  vegeta- 
tion is  very  much  less  than  that  of  snow,  so 
under  ordinary  conditions  excessive  quantities 
of  harmful  rays  do  not  enter  the  eye. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  there  is  more 
eye-strain  encountered  under  glaring  lighting 
conditions  when  the  eyes  are  called  upon  for 
work  such  as  reading  than  when  they  are  merely 
in  casual  use.  For  example,  in  the  shade  of  a 
building,  with  the  eyes  unshaded,  a  large  ex- 
panse of  sky  may  be  only  slightly  glaring. 


SAFEGUARDING  VISION  61 

However,  as  soon  as  the  eyes  are  concentrated 
upon  a  page  of  reading-matter  and  are  engaged 
in  the  effort  of  reading,  one  becomes  aware  of 
discomfort  which  in  time  may  become  unbear- 
able unless  the  eyes  are  shaded.  A  similar 
effect  may  be  detected  indoors ;  that  is,  glaring 
conditions  become  much  more  annoying  when 
the  eyes  are  called  upon  for  their  best  efforts. 
The  explanation  of  this  is  not  clear;  in  fact, 
the  physiological  and  psychological  reasons  for 
the  discomfort  of  glare  are  not  thoroughly 
understood.  Some  think  that  a  glaring  light- 
source  is  constantly  bidding  for  attention  and 
that  the  effort  required  to  keep  the  eyes  away 
from  it  is  responsible  for  the  eye-strain  which 
is  experienced.  Doubtless  this  is  a  factor,  but 
it  is  also  probable  that  the  true  explanation 
is  more  complex. 

It  is  difficult  to  formulate  a  set  of  rules  for 
avoiding  eye-strain;  in  fact,  "don'ts"  ordin- 
arily are  not  palatable.  If  the  owners  of  eyes 
will  be  convinced  of  the  harm  which  indiffer- 
ence toward  them  may  cause,  rules  will  be  un- 
necessary. 

However,  the  following  are  a  few  cautions 


62  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

which,  if  heeded,  will  do  much  toward  eliminat- 
ing the  harmful  conditions  so  commonly  en- 
countered in  the  home. 

Don't  judge  illumination  by  the  brightness 
of  lamps. 

Don't  expose  the  eyes  to  an  unshaded  light- 
source. 

Don't  read  while  facing  a  bright  light- 
source. 

Don't  use  bright  light  against  a  dark  back- 
ground. 

Don't  save  light  at  the  expense  of  the  eyes. 

Don't  be  indifferent  to  vision. 

It  is  so  easy  to  correct  most  of  the  harmful 
lighting  conditions  that  neglect  in  this  respect 
is  inexcusable.  A  denser  shade,  a  deeper 
shade,  or  one  of  different  shape  may  be  re- 
quired. Bare  lamps  may  be  concealed  by 
means  of  shades  or  placed  higher  in  the  shade. 
The  lowering  of  the  shade  on  a  reading-lamp 
may  be  necessary.  Perhaps  a  change  in  posi- 
tion with  respect  to  the  light-source  may  be 
required.  The  fixture  over  the  dining-table 
may  be  too  high.  The  lamp  in  the  shade  in  the 
center  of  the  ceiling  in  the  kitchen  perhaps 
should  be  bowl-frosted,  that  is,  frosted  at  the 


SAFEGUARDING  VISION  63 

tip.  A  local  light  from  a  portable  lamp  may 
be  necessary  to  augment  the  ceiling-light  in  the 
sewing-room.  It  is  one  of  the  striking  features 
of  lighting  that  little  changes  reap  great  re- 
sults. Many  of  these  are  illustrated  in  chapters 
which  follow.  Owing  to  the  variety  of  condi- 
tions, it  is  difficult  to  formulate  brief  recom- 
mendations which  will  cover  all  cases.  Even 
the  simple  rules  which  are  presented  appear  to 
be  ridiculously  obvious;  nevertheless  they  are 
ignored  on  every  hand.  The  seat  of  trouble  is 
the  same  as  that  to  which  lack  of  progress  in 
other  phases  of  lighting  may  be  attributed. 
The  attitude  of  the  light-user  is  a  relic  of  the 
past  age  when  light  was  costly  and  light-sources 
were  relatively  harmless.  This  attitude  must 
be  altered  to  suit  new  conditions.  The  most 
that  is  requested  is  attention,  instead  of  indif- 
ference, to  lighting  on  the  part  of  those  who 
would  conserve  vision  and  would  contribute  to- 
ward making  the  home  a  haven  of  rest. 


THE   FUNCTIONS    OF   FIXTURES 

IN  the  broader  view  of  lighting  which  these 
chapters  aim  to  describe  the  lighting-fix- 
ture is  considered  chiefly  as  a  means  to  an 
end.  It  is  a  link  in  the  chain  from  the  meter 
to  the  final  lighting  effect,  but,  being  visible, 
it  should  be  a  satisfactory  object  from  an 
artistic  point  of  view.  One  of  the  dominant 
notes  of  this  book,  however,  is  that  the  usual 
view  of  lighting  has  been  a  superficial  one, 
because  fixtures  have  been  considered  too 
much  as  objects  of  art  and  too  little  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  results  which  they  are 
able  to  produce  in  a  room,  if  they  are  designed 
with  lighting  effect  in  mind.  The  chief  criti- 
cism which  may  be  directed  toward  lighting- 
fixtures  is  that  they  are  aimless  from  a  light- 
ing viewpoint.  The  design  of  fixtures  has 
been  left  to  the  artist,  and  artistic  or  sup- 
posedly artistic  fixtures  have  been  the  product 

64 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTURES      65 

of  the  designer.  However,  here  is  a  field  for 
the  correlation  of  science  and  art.  The  fixture 
should  be  designed  scientifically  to  obtain  cer- 
tain results;  then  the  artist  should  be  com- 
missioned to  clothe  it  in  a  satisfactory  artistic 
exterior.  In  Chapter  XI  the  latter  is  consid- 
ered, and  at  present  the  discussion  will  be  di- 
rected toward  an  anlysis  of  the  functions  of 
fixtures  in  lighting. 

Of  course  there  are  many  fixtures  used  in 
lighting  purely  or  predominantly  for  their 
beauty  as  ornaments.  This  practice  will  al- 
ways continue,  because  they  cannot  be  excelled 
as  decorative  objects.  A  lighted  fixture,  if  it 
is  not  glaring,  is  an  ornament  throbbing  with 
life.  It  is  a  more  vital  spark  than  most  bric- 
a-bac,  but  if  consideration  of  fixtures  stops 
when  this  aim  is  achieved,  many  possibilities 
in  lighting  remain  unrealized.  Light  from 
modern  sources  is  readily  controlled,  and  fix- 
tures should  contain  elements  of  light-control 
when  these  are  advantageous.  It  is  sometimes 
remarked  that  the  correlation  of  science  and 
art  in  fixtures  is  impossible,  but  common  sense 
and  some  fixtures  in  use  to-day  convince  us 
that  this  is  not  impossible. 


66  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

There  are  many  thousand  fixtures  on  display 
and  illustrated  in  catalogues.  One  may  enter 
a  dealer's  store  and  see  hundreds  of  them 
massed  on  the  floors,  walls  and  ceilings,  but 
from  the  standpoint  of  lighting  effect  this  vast 
number  dwindles  to  a  bare  dozen  types,  exclud- 
ing those  that  are  purely  novelties.  The 
primary  function  of  fixtures  is  to  distribute 
light  and,  although  no  two  of  different  design 
but  of  the  same  general  class  would  distribute 
light  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  their  general 
lighting  effects  are  similar. 

It  is  difficult  to  devise  terms  which  satis- 
factorily describe  the  lighting  effects  produced 
by  the  various  classes  of  fixtures,  but  an  at- 
tempt will  be  made  to  utilize  terminology  al- 
ready in  use,  despite  its  shortcomings.  In  the 
terminology  associated  with  science  it  is  strik- 
ingly true  that  progress  is  continually  reveal- 
ing errors  and  misconceptions  of  the  past. 
For  instance,  many  cling  to  the  terms  "  electric- 
ity "  and  "  magnetism "  as  though  they  were  un- 
related, as  supposed  years  ago.  Likewise, 
when  the  great  divisions  of  physical  science 
were  first  made,  none  of  the  learned  men  of  that 
time  suspected  any  relation  between  light  and 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTURES     67 


electricity.  Hence  light  has  long  prevailed  as 
a  distinct  division,  despite  the  fact  that  light  is 
now  considered  to  be  electro-magnetic  energy. 
It  is  well  to  reflect  that  all  the  fences  are  arti- 
ficial and  that  they  have  been  created  for  prac- 
tical purposes  and  for  reasons  which  may  not 
appeal  to  the  more  mature  and  capable  judg- 
ment of  later  years.  In  some  cases  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  any  traces  to-day  of  barriers  that  in 
earlier  years  seemed  natural 
and  inevitable.  Even  the  for- 
midable science  of  chemistry  is 
fundamentally  a  science  of 
physics,  that  is,  it  merges  fi- 
nally into  physics.  If  it  will  be 
remembered  that  artificial  di- 
visions merge  into  each  other, 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  with 
the  terminology. 

A  similar  condition  exists  at 
the  present  time  in  the  termin- 
ology used  in  classifying  light- 
ing systems.  Direct  lighting 
is  fundamentally  that  produced 
by  a  fixture  which  directs  most 
of  the  light  generally  downward  upon  an  impor- 
tant area.  This  is  exemplified  in  simple  form  in 


FIG.  2 — A  simple  "di- 
rect-lighting" fixture 


68 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


Figure  2.  Indirect  lighting  is  that  in  which  the 
light  reaches  an  important  area  indirectly,  that 
is,  the  light  is  usually  directed  to  the  ceiling  and 


OPAQUE  BOWL3 

FlG.  3 — Two   "indirect-lighting"  fixtures  consisting  of  opaque  bowls  con- 
taining silvered  reflectors  in  which  the  lamps   are   located 

upper  walls  to  be  reflected  to  the  place  where  it 
is  utilized.  It  commonly  consists  of  an  opaque 
bowl  containing  silvered  reflectors  surrounding 
the  lamps,  as  in  Figure  3.  Semi-indirect  light- 
ing is  a  combination  of  these  two  and  is  usually 
accomplished  by  means  of  a  diffusing  glass  bowl 


FIGS.  4,  5,  6 — Simple  "semi-indirect"  lighting  fixtures.  The  one 
represented  in  Fig.  6  really  approximates  a  "direct-lighting"  fixture 
owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  bowl  to  the  ceiling 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTURES     69 

which  is  open  at  the  top.  Examples  of  semi- 
indirect  units  are  shown  in  Figures  4,  5  and  6, 
although  the  proximity  of  the  bowl  to  the  ceil- 
ing in  Figure  6  makes  it  approach  a  "  direct- 
lighting  "  fixture.  Figure  5  represents  a  transi- 
tion between  Figure  4  and  6.  From  such  light- 
ing units  some  light  reaches  the  important  area, 


FIG.  7 — A  "direct-indirect"  fixture.  A  large  portion  of  the  light 
is  reflected  directly  to  the  ceiling  by  the  metal  reflector  M,  and  some 
light  escapes  downward  to  be  diffused  by  the  opal  glass  plate  P.  A 
slight  amount  escapes  between  the  plate  and  the  reflector  to  illuminate 
the  textile  shade  S. 

such  as  the  top  of  the  reading-table,  directly 
from  the  bowl  and  some  of  the  light  escapes 
from  the  top  to  the  ceiling,  to  be  reflected. 

Certain  fixtures  might  be  considered  to  be 
"direct-indirect."  For  example,  an  opaque  in- 
verted bowl  with  a  hole  in  the  bottom,  such  as 


70  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

that  illustrated  in  Figure  7,  emits  an  upward 
component  which  reaches  the  place  of  utilization 
indirectly,  and  a  direct  component  escapes  from 
the  aperture  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl.  Other 
examples  are  found  in  Figures  17  and  18. 
Some  fixtures  are  provided  with  pendent  shades 
surrounding  an  inverted  bowl,  as  that  illus- 
trated in  Figure  1.  These  are  direct-indirect 
units.  In  indirect  lighting  the  primary  light- 
sources  are  completely  concealed  and  the  light, 
in  effect,  comes  from  secondary  light-sources, 
such  as  the  illuminated  ceiling.  Furthermore, 
in  so-called  " concealed"  lighting  no  fixtures  in 
the  ordinary  sense  are  used,  the  lamps  being 
concealed  behind  a  cornice  or  molding,  as  in 
Figure  54.  This  has  also  been  termed  "cove" 
lighting. 

This  classification  into  direct,  semi-indirect 
and  indirect  lighting  has  grown  to  be  quite  in- 
adequate, owing  to  the  tremendous  progress  and 
increasing  complexity  of  the  science  and  art  of 
lighting.  While  it  is  convenient  to  use  these 
terms  in  the  absence  of  better  ones,  it  is  \vell  to 
reflect  that  these  divisions  are  quite  artificial. 
From  a  scientific  viewpoint  it  would  be  better 
to  classify  all  fixtures  in  terms  of  the  upward 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTURES      71 

and  downward  components  which  they  emit. 
However,  for  the  present  purpose  this  method 
would  be  unsatisfactory,  because  it  would  in- 
volve numbers  or  values  which  could  not  be  vis- 
ualized, except  by  the  expert. 

As  already  shown,  it  is  impossible  to  define 
accurately  direct,  semi-indirect  and  indirect 
lighting,  but  a  further  discussion  of  this  diffi- 
culty should  help  the  reader  to  visualize  the 
functions  of  fixtures.  A  bare  lamp  amid  dark 
surroundings  and  a  searchlight  projecting  its 
beam  into  space  are  extreme  examples  of  direct 
lighting,  but  a  bare  lamp  in  a  room  with  light 
surroundings  is  also  classified  as  direct  light- 
ing. Enclosing  the  lamp  in  a  diffusing  glass 
sphere  reduces  the  brightness  of  the  lighting- 
unit  very  much,  but  we  still  have  a  system  of 
direct  lighting.  If  these  units  are  multiplied 
so  that  there  are  a  dozen  or  a  hundred  in  the 
same  room,  we  still  have  direct  lighting.  Now 
let  us  take  an  inverted  glass  bowl,  which  would 
be  the  basis  of  a  semi-indirect  system.  If  it  is 
of  clear  glass  that  has  been  sandblasted  on  one 
side,  nearly  as  much  light  will  be  emitted  gen- 
erally downward  as  upward,  but  if  it  is  made  of 
thin  marble,  very  little  light  will  be  emitted 


72  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

downward  by  the  bowl.  However,  both  these 
extremes  and  all  the  intermediate  conditions 
are  termed  " semi-indirect  lighting." 

Another  example  which  may  aid  in  apprais- 
ing fixtures  is  illustrated  in  Figure  8.    A  diffus- 


FIG.  8 — A  fixture  which  involves  the  principles  of  "indirect"  and 
"semi  indirect"  lighting  but  in  effect  does  not  differ  materially  from 
"direct  lighting."  The  diffusing  bowl  B  may  be  considered  to  have 
been  drawn  up  near  to  the  ceiling  by  shortening  its  support  and  the 
ceiling  may  be  considered  to  have  contracted  to  a  small  white  circular 
spot  C. 

ing  bowl  is  suspended  a  few  inches  below  a  cir- 
cular white  surface.  Some  of  the  light  escapes 
directly  from  the  bowl  and  most  of  the  remain- 
der, which  is  emitted  upward  from  the  source 
to  the  white  surface,  is  reflected  generally  down- 
ward. Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  fixture  involves 
the  principles  of  so-called  semi-indirect  and  in- 
direct lighting.  However,  the  bowl  which  in 
semi-indirect  lighting  is  usually  suspended  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  ceiling  is  in  this 
case  hung  close  to  the  circular  surface,  which 
may  be  considered  to  be  a  very  much  contracted 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OP  FIXTURES     73 


ceiling.  The  final  result,  as  determined  by  the 
appearance  of  shadows  and  by  other  means,  is 
quite  similar  to  that  of  direct  lighting  from  a 
large  lighting  unit.  In  the  home  this  fixture 
can  be  fastened  to  the  ceiling  or  may  be  sus- 
pended from  it.  In  large  interiors  it  has  the 
advantage  of  bringing  a  clean  white  "ceiling" 
close  to  the  light-source. 
If  the  reader  will  give 
some  thought  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  this  fixture  and 
the  possible  misconcep- 
tions which  may  arise  from 
a  cursory  inspection  of  it, 
he  will  greatly  increase  his 
ability  to  appraise  light- 
ing fixtures,  systems  and 
lighting  effects. 

A  fixture  which  has  the 
appearance  of  a  semi-in- 
direct bowl,  but,  in  effect,, 
is  an  indirect  fixture  is  illustrated  in  Figure  9. 
The  opaque  bowl  of  an  indirect  fixture  has  been 
replaced  by  one  of  diffusing  glass  or  of  other 
translucent  material  and  a  small  lamp  has  been 
added  to  illuminate  this  bowl.  This  type  of  light- 


FIG.  9 — A  "luminous-bowl'1 
fixture  in  which  the  opaque 
bowl  of  an  indirect  fixture 

is  replaced  by  one  of  diffus 

ing  glass  (or  of  other  ma- 
terial) B,  and  a  small  lamp 
L  is  provided  for  illurainat 
ing  the  bowl.  The  silvered 
reflectors  S  contain  lamps 

whose  light  is  directed  up- 


74  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ing  unit  arose  to  meet  the  objection  sometimes 
raised  to  the  effect  that  we  expect  to  see  the  bowl 
of  the  fixture  luminous  and  are  disappointed  if  it 
is  not.  In  fact,  this  is  one  of  many  examples  in 
lighting  which  demonstrates  the  influence  of 
habit  and  usage.  In  this  case  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  objection  to  the  dark  bowl  of  an 
indirect  fixture  generally  wears  off  in  time. 
Luminous  bowls  can  be  very  beautiful  and  de- 
sirable fixtures,  but  they  do  not  meet  the  chief 
objection  to  totally  or  predominantly  indirect 
lighting  in  the  home.  Some  indirect  lighting  is 
desirable,  but  direct  light  from  proper  fixtures 
is  indispensable  in  general  to  the  best  effects  in 
the  home. 

In  indirect  lighting  systems  in  which  lamps 
are  concealed  in  a  cove  or  in  an  opaque  bowl, 
the  ceiling  is  the  secondary  light-source.  If  we 
imagine  such  an  illuminated  ceiling  to  contract 
and  to  increase  in  brightness  until  it  becomes 
very  small  and  very  bright,  we  witness  in  the 
mind's  eye  an  evolution  from  indirect  lighting 
to  direct  lighting.  If  we  follow  this  evolution, 
classifying  it  the  while,  at  what  point  does  one 
system  end  and  the  other  begin  ?  Wall-brackets 
are  commonly  considered  as  direct-lighting 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTURES      75 

units,  but  if  they  are  upright,  they  usually  emit 
an  upward  component,  because  the  upper  part 
of  the  shade  is  open.  This  would  provide  direct 
and  indirect  light.  In  fact,  nearly  all  fixtures 
desirable  in  the  home  emit  upward  and  down- 
ward components,  and  it  is  safer  to  visualize 
their  distribution  of  light  in  terms  of  these  two 
components  of  varying  proportions.  However, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  terminology  in  which  to 
discuss  or  to  classify  lighting  systems,  so  that 
the  foregoing  will  serve  the  purpose  if  they  are 
understood  to  be  general  terms. 

Eegardless  of  these  terms,  the  final  appraisal 
of  lighting  systems  must  be  in  terms  of  such 
factors  as  diffusion,  tint  and  distribution  of 
light;  the  brightness  of  the  shades  and  of  the 
backgrounds;  the  relative  amounts  of  scattered 
and  direct  light ;  the  character  of  the  shadows ; 
the  distribution  of  light  upon  the  important 
areas  of  the  room;  the  suitability  of  the  in- 
tensity for  reading  or  for  other  purposes;  and 
the  general  mood  of  the  room.  No  system  is  a 
catholicon.  There  is  a  place  in  residences  for 
all  that  is  good  in  lighting.  The  esthetic  prob- 
lems or  desires  of  taste  are  so  varied  that  for 
their  satisfaction  a  variety  of  fixtures  must  be 


76  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

available.  However,  there  is  a  need  for  fixtures 
with  more  definite  aims  in  meeting  the  demands 
occasioned  by  a  broader  knowledge  of  the  pos- 
sibilities of  lighting.  Light  is  a  wonderful  tool, 
important  and  useful  beyond  the  conception  of 
most  persons.  To  use  it  successfully  it  is  neces- 
sary to  study  that  which  is  to  be  illuminated 
and  to  know  the  functions  of  fixtures. 

Purely  utilitarian  lighting  is  sometimes  the 
first  consideration,  but  it  is  at  least  a  by-product 
in  all  cases  where  artistic  effects  dominate. 
Lighting-fixtures  should  control  light  as  effici- 
ently as  is  compatible  with  the  desired  effect, 
but  efficiency  involves  satisfactoriness.  Beauty 
and  utility  overlap;  they  cannot  be  considered 
separately  in  the  home.  Usefulness  is  a  part 
of  beauty,  and  therefore  a  lighting-fixture  can- 
not be  beautiful  if  it  does  not  fulfill  its  intended 
purpose  regardless  of  the  grace  of  its  lines  or  of 
its  expressiveness  as  a  work  of  art.  Beauty  is 
the  result  of  harmony,  the  accord  of  all  the  ele- 
ments; therefore,  when  a  lighting-fixture  is  in- 
tended to  fulfill  the  double  purpose  of  an  object 
of  art  and  of  a  distributor  of  light,  the  fulfill- 
ment of  the  latter  aim  is  essential  to  harmony 
and  hence  to  beauty.  And  finally,  to  those  ac- 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTURES     77 

cursed  by  miserly  dispositions  which  do  not  per- 
mit them  to  see  the  usefulness  of  the  rose,  let  us 
state  that  the  utility  of  beauty  is  recognized  by 
those  who  live. 

Most  lighting-fixtures  distribute  light  sym- 
metrically, although  by  no  means  is  the  control 
of  light  confined  to  such  distributions.  In  fact, 
many  lighting  units  are  in  daily  use  which  pro- 
vide asymmetrical  distributions.  For  example, 
the  show-window  reflector  is  placed  at  the  upper 
front  of  the  window,  and  although  it  hangs  in 
a  pendent  position,  it  directs  light  downward 
and  backward.  Such  units  are  in  use  for  illu- 
minating pictures  on  walls  and  have  even  been 
designed  for  wall-brackets  so  that  the  light  is 
directed  predominantly  away  from  the  wall. 
On  the  other  hand,  half-shades  are  in  use  on 
brackets  and  portables  to  illuminate  pictures  or 
ornaments  or  to  provide  an  indirect  lighting  by 
reflection  from  the  walls.  The  reflectors  used 
behind  cornices  or  in  imitation  flower-boxes  on 
the  wall  should  be  of  the  asymmetrical  type  so 
that  the  light  is  directed  away  from  the  wall  and 
upward,  instead  of  being  confined  to  a  spot  on 
a  portion  of  the  adjacent  wall.  For  concealed 
units  of  this  type  the  silvered  and  metal  reflec- 


78  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tors  are  usually  satisfactory,  but  where  they  are 
not  concealed,  the  so-called  prismatic  glass  re- 
flectors satisfy  utilitarian  purposes.  The  latter 
are  useful,  for  example,  in  the  kitchen,  if  light 
is  to  be  directed  predominantly  toward  the  cook- 
ing-range or  work-table.  It  would  be  tedious 
to  read  the  detailed  uses  for  such  units,  so  they 
will  be  passed  by  with  this  brief  mention.  It  is 
sufficient  to  know  that  such  are  available  so  that 
they  may  be  utilized  when  they  best  serve  the 
needs. 

In  this  general  view  of  the  functions  of  fix- 
tures a  discussion  of  details  would  lead  far 
afield.  Such  intimate  analyses  are  reserved  for 
later  chapters.  However,  it  is  hoped  that  the 
preceding  paragraphs  have  given  the  reader  an 
idea  of  what  he  may  expect  from  fixtures. 
There  are  numberless  designs  available,  and  it 
is  surprising  how  many  fixtures  which  differ 
widely  in  appearance  will  produce  approxi- 
mately the  same  lighting  effects.  On  the  other 
hand,  fixtures  which  appear  quite  similar  may 
produce  very  different  lighting  effects.  Herein 
lies  one  of  the  potential  features  of  lighting,  for 
a  desired  lighting  effect  is  not  limited  by  the 
appearance  of  the  fixture.  In  choosing  fixtures 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  FIXTUEES      79 

the  lighting  effects  which  they  produce  are  of 
primary  importance,  and  if  these  effects  are 
not  obvious  from  the  construction  of  the  fix- 
tures, the  purchaser  should  demand  that  they 
be  demonstrated  under  conditions  which  are 
favorable  to  the  formation  of  a  judgment  con- 
cerning them.  In  general,  a  fixture  which  con- 
tains two  or  more  circuits  each  of  which  pro- 
vides a  lighting  effect  distinctly  different  from 
the  others  is  a  more  potential  factor  in  lighting 
than  aimless  fixtures  which  produce  only  one 
effect. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  appraise  a  fixture.  If  it 
is  a  shower,  the  shades  should  be  deep  enough 
and  of  such  shape  that  the  lamps  are  concealed. 
Even  a  satisfactory  fixture  of  this  sort,  if  hung 
too  high,  as,  for  example,  over  a  dining-table, 
becomes  undesirable.  This  is  illustrated  in 
Figures  14  and  15.  Owing  to  the  variation  in 
the  heights  of  ceilings,  this  factor  becomes  im- 
portant. 

Many  beautiful  brackets  are  equipped  with 
unshaded  frosted  lamps,  but  often  these  cease 
to  be  beautiful  when  lighted.  In  fact,  they  are 
usually  very  glaring.  This  is  an  excellent  ex- 
ample of  lack  of  foresight  and  slavishness  to 


80  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

"art"  on  the  part  of  the  designer.  The  fixtures 
are  too  often  visualized  by  him  only  as  objects; 
if  he  visualized  them  when  lighted,  he  would  not 
be  guilty  of  their  design  without  shades.  In  a 
similar  manner  the  candelabra,  with  its  cluster 
of  unshaded  frosted  lamps,  evolved.  In  gen- 
eral, such  lamps  are  usually  glaring  and  there- 
fore can  have  no  place  in  an  artistic  lighting 
scheme  in  the  home.  If  such  fixtures  are  hung 
high  in  large  interiors  with  light  ceilings,  they 
may  not  be  glaring.  By  equipping  them  with 
shades  the  annoying  condition  is  replaced  by  a 
charming  restful  effect.  In  general,  there  is  no 
place  in  the  home  for  unshaded  lamps.  They 
are  satisfactory  under  some  conditions  in  large 
interiors  where  glittering  splendor  is  desired, 
but  rooms  in  ordinary  homes  are  too  small  to 
afford  escape  from  the  glare  of  unshaded  lamps. 
If  the  appraisal  of  fixtures  progresses  in  this 
manner,  gross  mistakes  will  not  occur  in  the 
choice  of  fixtures.  A  judicious  use  of  common 
sense,  combined  with  focusing  the  attention 
upon  the  manner  in  which  fixtures  distribute 
light,  will  be  productive  of  satisfactory  results. 
But  it  should  be  remembered  that  lighting 
effects  do  not  depend  solely  upon  so-called  fix- 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OP  FIXTUEES     81 

tures.  Lamps  are  easily  concealed  in  architec- 
tural and  other  ornaments,  and  special  construc- 
tion often  yields  results  which  are  novel  and  in- 
teresting. Some  examples  of  such  novelties  are 
found  in  Chapter  XII.  In  general,  then,  light- 
ing effects  are  of  primary  importance ;  and,  ex- 
cept in  those  cases  where  fixtures  are  purely 
ornamental,  the  appearance  of  fixtures  is  a 
secondary,  though  important,  consideration. 
It  is  always  possible  to  satisfy  the  latter  require- 
ment without  sacrificing  the  desires  as  to  light- 
ing effects.  In  fact,  the  uninitiated  are  likely 
to  be  surprised  at  the  similarity  of  lighting 
effects  which  can  be  obtained  from  fixtures  ap- 
parently differing  widely  in  construction. 


VI 

THE   LIVING-ROOM 

IT  has  been  stated  that  the  home  is  the  theater 
of  life,  and  this  association  loads  to  a  com- 
parison of  residence  lighting  with  stage  light- 
ing. The  fundamental  aim  of  light  on  the  stage 
should  be  to  utilize  its  expressiveness  and  im- 
pressiveness  to  provide  an  appropriate  setting 
or  to  enhance  the  mood  for  the  various  occa- 
sions. Like  the  theatrical  stage,  the  home  is  a 
place  of  various  moods  and  occasions  and  the 
lighting  can  be  made  sufficiently  flexible  to  be 
adaptable  to  the  various  activities,  moods  and 
affairs.  The  lighting  in  certain  rooms,  such  as 
the  living-  and  dining-rooms,  should  be  theatri- 
cal but  not  spectacular.  It  should  be  expres- 
sive, and  its  psychological  influences  should  be 
drawn  upon  and  utilized  appropriately.  This 
point  will  be  emphasized  in  the  discussions  of 
the  lighting  for  various  rooms,  but  this  chapter 
will  be  confined  to  the  living-room. 
Activities  in  a  living-room  vary  from  those 

82 


THE  LIVING-BOOM  83 

quiet  occasions  when  a  restive  mood  is  desired 
to  those  when  a  joyous  company  is  gathered. 
Surely  a  flood  of  light  is  not  best  for  these  two 
extremes.  To  provide  only  the  monotonous 
lighting  which  is  the  result  of  simple  ceiling- 
fixtures  and  generally  inadequate  equipment  is 
to  limit  the  possibilities  of  lighting  and  to  in- 
sure dissatisfaction.  It  should  be  the  aim  in 
designing  the  wiring  and  in  selecting  the  fix- 
tures to  obtain  a  variety  of  lighting  effects,  in 
order  that  lighting  may  do  its  share  toward  pro- 
viding the  proper  environment  for  various 
moods  and  occasions.  In  fact,  after  a  house  is 
decorated  and  furnished,  lighting  is  the  only  ele- 
ment having  sufficient  mobility  to  provide  ex- 
tensive variety  in  the  appearance  of  the  inte- 
riors. Herein  lies  the  superiority  of  lighting. 
Most  living-rooms  contain  a  central  ceiling- 
fixture,  and  in  the  case  of  larger  rooms  two  or 
more  ceiling-fixtures  are  in  use,  but  such  a 
means  for  lighting  this  type  of  room  may  be 
shown  to  possess  serious  disadvantages.  In 
the  first  place,  a  fixture  in  the  center  of  the 
ceiling  is  generally  in  the  field  of  view  when 
persons  are  engaged  in  conversation  in  living- 
rooms  of  small  and  moderate  size.  It  is  prac- 


84  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tically  impossible  to  avoid  glare  and  consequent 
discomfort.  Even  though  the  lamps  are  well- 
shaded,  there  is  usually  a  noticeable  glare.  In 
fact,  the  bright  ceiling  due  to  semi-indirect  or 
totally  indirect  lighting  is  annoying  when  it 
must  be  endured  for  a  long  time.  Another  dis- 
advantage of  such  lighting  in  the  living-room 
is  the  inartistic  symmetry  of  the  lighting  effect. 
A  simple  experiment,  comparing  a  symmetrical 
with  an  asymmetrical  distribution  of  light,  em- 
phasizes the  general  desirability  of  the  latter 
where  artistic  effects  and  the  expressiveness  of 
the  room  are  obtained,  as  in  the  usual  living- 
room,  without  a  keynote  of  symmetry  in  such 
factors  as  the  arrangement  of  furniture. 

In  small  living-rooms  the  central  ceiling-fix- 
ture may  be  a  necessary  compromise,  owing  to 
limited  space,  but  there  is  a  tendency  toward 
larger  living-rooms.  In  the  larger  rooms  the 
ceiling-fixture  is  usually  an  obtrusive  object, 
and  it  certainly  reduces  the  extensity  of  the 
room.  It  interferes  with  the  effectiveness  of 
delightful  proportions  and,  in  general,  appears 
to  be  undesirable.  Fortunately,  as  living- 
rooms  increase  in  size,  the  difficulties  of  light- 
ing diminish.  Portable  lamps  generally  afford 


PLATE  II 


a.   Novelties  such  as  windows  emitting  artificial  "moonlight' 
or  "sunlight"  are  among  the  possibilities  of  modern  lighting. 


b.    The  effect  of  a  strong  downward  component  of  light 
from  the  central  fixture.     See  Figure  18. 


PLATE  III 


a.  The  effect  of  a  predominant  upward  component  from 
the  central  fixture.     See  Figure  18. 


b.  The  effect  of  a  predominant  downward  component  rein- 
forced by  a  secondary  effect  of  tinted  light  from  the  cove. 


THE  LIVING-EOOM  85 

the  most  effective  means  for  lighting  this  type 
of  room.  They  are  mobile;  as  many  may  be 
lighted  as  necessary;  the  number  of  lighting 
effects  obtainable  increases  with  the  number  of 
lamps  and  circuits;  and  the  lamps  may  be  at 
all  times  decorative  furnishings.  An  adequate 
supply  of  baseboard  receptacles  makes  it  easy 
for  the  housewife  to  rearrange  the  furniture 
without  being  restrained  by  lighting  considera- 
tions. This  is  always  a  desirable  feature,  but 
in  many  houses  at  present  the  supply  of  recep- 
tacles is  inadequate. 

A  small  living-room  should  have  at  least  four 
baseboard  outlets,  and  a  room  14  feet  by  24  feet 
should  have  at  least  six.  It  may  be  helpful  to 
follow  a  definite  rule  evolved  from  extensive 
analyses  and  experience  in  lighting  the  home. 
Such  a  one  which  meets  the  requirements  is 
one  baseboard  outlet  for  each  fifty  square  feet 
of  floor-area  in  the  living-room.  Floor-plugs 
are  usually  unnecessary  and  inconvenient  from 
the  standpoint  of  floor-coverings;  however, 
there  are  some  conditions  which  appear  to  de- 
mand them.  If  it  is  certain  that  a  library-table 
is  to  be  placed  permanently  away  from  the  wall, 
a  floor-plug  may  be  provided  at  the  proper  loca- 


86  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tion.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  carry  the 
wire  down  through  a  leg  of  the  table  which  has 
been  bored  for  this  purpose.  In  fact,  some  legs 
are  hollow,  owing  to  the  practice  of  construct- 
ing them  from  several  pieces  of  wood.  At  least, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  have  the  leg  bored.  This 
eliminates  one  criticism  of  portables,  namely, 
the  inconvenience  of  exposed  wires.  However, 
this  difficulty  is  less  real  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed, if  the  various  portables  are  located  near 
the  walls.  As  one  looks  at  the  lighted  port- 
ables, the  charming  restful  atmosphere  of  a 
well-appointed  living-room  forces  itself  upon 
him  and  he  feels  that  these  quiet  spots  of  light- 
ing are  the  symbols  of  a  haven  of  rest.  They 
are  the  "home-fires"  of  the  present  age. 

With  an  adequate  supply  of  portable  lamps 
the  householder  will  be  able  to  obtain  a  range 
of  lighting  effects  and  the  various  occupants  of 
the  room  will  be  likely  to  find  comfortable  places 
for  reading  or  for  other  activities.  It  is  deplor- 
able that  there  is  such  a  scarcity  of  baseboard 
outlets  in  residences,  especially  when  they  con- 
tribute so  much  to  the  joy  and  comfort  of  a 
home  for  a  negligible  cost.  In  purchasing  a 
decorative  portable  lamp  it  is  well  to  sit  in  a 


THE  LIVING-BOOM  87 

chair  near  it,  if  it  is  a  floor-lamp,  or  close  to 
the  table  upon  which  it  rests,  if  it  is  a  table- 
lamp.  In  this  manner  its  effectiveness  is  easily 
tested  and  certain  minor  defects,  such  as  rela- 
tive dimensions,  height,  width  of  shade,  shape 
of  shade,  and  position  of  the  light-sources,  may 
be  noted.  Apparently  insignificant  details 
make  a  portable  lamp  satisfactory  or  unsatis- 
factory. Of  course,  some  of  the  smaller  port- 
ables are  merely  ornamental,  but  the  larger 
ones  may  be  both  useful  and  decorative.  These 
details  about  portable  lamps  are  discussed  at 
length  in  Chapter  X. 

Incandescent  lamps  used  in  decorative  port- 
ables or  other  lighting-fixtures  generally  pro- 
duce the  best  results  if  they  are  frosted  or  other- 
wise diffusing.  The  shades  should  be  satisfac- 
tory when  lighted  as  well  as  when  unlighted. 
Often  silk  shades,  for  example,  may  be  beauti- 
ful when  unlighted,  but  by  transmitted  light 
they  may  not  be  dense  enough  or  their  color 
may  not  be  the  best.  In  fact,  the  latter  may  be 
a  serious  matter  from  the  standpoint  of  har- 
mony of  color.  An  example  of  this  is  the  case 
of  two  mulberry  shades  which  when  lighted  ap- 
peared quite  unlike,  one  still  remaining  mul- 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


FIG.     10 — 

A  portable 
which  pro- 
vides an  indi- 
rect compo- 
nent of  light 
as  well  as  the 
usual  direct 
light.  The 

inner  mecha- 
nism is  shown 
by  the  dotted 
lines 


berry  while  the  other 
became  a  rose  color. 

Table-lamps  may 
vary  widely  in  dimen- 
sions, but  floor-lamps 
may  be  classified  into 
three  types  according 
to  height.  The  tall- 
est is  the  type  which 
provides  both  a  di- 
rect and  an  indirect 
component  of  light, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig- 
ure 10.  The  shortest 
floor-lamp  may  be  a 
portable  reading- 
lamp  which  may  be 
drawn  close  to  a 
chair.  If  the  light- 
source  is  about  four 
feet  above  the  floor 
and  the  shade  is 
fairly  shallow  and 
closed  at  the  top,  this 
provides  an  excellent 
portable  reading- 


THE  LIVING-BOOM  89 

lamp  which  is  really  a  miniature  floor-lamp  of 
decorative  possibilities.  Such  a  portable  is  dif- 
ficult to  find  in  the  fixture-store,  but  it  is  much 
more  satisfactory  in  the  living-room  than  the 
less  decorative  type  of  portable  reading  floor- 
lamp. Another  height  between  the  shortest  and 
tallest  floor-lamp  is  satisfactory  from  which  only 
a  direct  component  is  obtained.  The  portable 
lamp  is  very  desirable  for  lighting  a  desk  or  a 
piano.  In  fact,  portables  may  supply  all  the 
lighting  requirements  in  a  living-room,  but  con- 
siderable care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting 
them  for  various  purposes. 

There  are  occasions  when  general  lighting  is 
desired,  but  to  live  for  hours  each  evening  under 
a  flood  of  light  cannot  be  enjoyable.  Such  light- 
ing does  not  supply  the  pleasure  of  subdued  and 
localized  lighting  so  desirable  for  reading  and 
resting.  On  eliminating  the  ceiling-fixture, 
other  means  should  be  provided  for  obtaining 
a  flood  of  light  when  desired.  This  can  be 
effectively  procured  from  portable  lamps  if  an 
indirect  component  is  provided,  as  illustrated 
in  Figure  10.  The  inverted  reflector,  indicated 
by  the  dotted  lines,  can  be  opaque  or  of  diffus- 
ing material.  Several  types  of  these  units  have 


90  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

been  available  for  years,  but  they  have  not  re- 
ceived the  attention  which  they  deserve.  How 
long  will  it  be  before  fixture-designers  will  real- 
ize that  as  much  apparatus  can  be  stowed  away 
beneath  the  shade  of  a  portable  lamp  as  can  be 
placed  in  a  ceiling-fixture?  Lighting  by  means 
of  portable  lamps  is  discussed  in  detail  in  Chap- 
ter X. 

Owing  to  their  position,  wall-brackets  are 
sources  of  discomfort  if  they  are  not  heavily 
shaded.  They  are  nearly  always  in  the  field  of 
vision  when  several  persons  are  engaged  in  con- 
versation in  the  living-room.  If  they  are  de- 
pended upon  for  general  lighting,  the  bright 
walls  and  ceiling  are  often  annoying.  If  they 
are  located  properly  and  are  equipped  with 
pendent  shades,  they  may  serve  as  reading- 
lamps,  but,  being  fastened  to  the  wall,  they  do 
not  possess  the  advantage  of  mobility  which  is 
a  feature  of  portable  lamps.  Their  position 
may  be  predetermined  in  a  manner  similar  to 
baseboard  outlets,  namely,  by  relating  them  to 
the  important  arrangements  of  the  furniture. 
The  wiring  of  a  new  house  should  not  be  laid 
out  without  first  carefully  considering  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  important  articles  of  furni- 


THE  LIVING-BOOM 


91 


ture.  Incidentally,  this  also  provides  valuable 
information  for  the  placing  of  windows.  To 
return  to  wall-brackets,  they  may  serve  purely 
utilitarian  purposes,  but  their  chief  right  to  ex- 
ist in  the  living-room  is  as  vital  sparks  of  orna- 
ment. This  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  exist- 
ence of  any  fixture  which  is  intended  only  to  be 
decorative.  A  beautiful  bracket  equipped  with 


FIGS.  11,  12,  13— Wall-brackets  which  yield  different  lighting  ef- 
fects. Fig.  11,  direct  lighting;  Fig.  12,  semi-indirect  lighting;  Fig.  13, 
indirect  lighting 

a  dense  shade  containing  a  small  lamp  is  as  or- 
namental as  any  piece  of  bric-a-brac  can  be. 
Incidentally,  small  lamps  and  as  large  shades 
as  are  compatible  with  artistic  appearance  con- 
spire to  reduce  the  brightness  of  wall-brackets 
within  proper  limits  for  comfort.  Dense  dif- 
fusing glass,  parchment  and  textiles  are  satis- 
factory materials  for  shades  for  wall-brackets. 


92  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

The  extreme  variety  of  lighting  effects  which 
can  be  obtained  from  wall-brackets  is  illustrated 
in  Figures  11,  12  and  13.  If  the  shade  is  pen- 
dent, we  have  so-called  direct  lighting,  as  indi- 
cated in  Figure  11,  but  if  the  shade  is  swung 
to  an  upright  position,  we  have  a  semi-indirect 
fixture,  as  indicated  in  Figure  12.  Incidentally, 
the  large  shade  in  Figure  12  is  quite  desirable, 
if  it  consists  of  diffusing  glass,  because  a  large 
shade  and  a  small  lamp  is  a  combination  which 
tends  toward  shades  of  low  brightness — an  es- 
sential if  brackets  are  to  be  endurable.  In 
Figure  13  the  bracket  is  represented  as  a  small 
indirect  fixture,  being  equipped  with  a  silvered 
opaque  reflector  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

In  a  later  chapter  the  wiring-plans  of  a 
middle-class  residence  are  presented  as  a  sum- 
mary to  the  preceding  discussion,  so  the  outlets 
need  not  be  further  discussed  at  present.  It 
should  be  noted  that  in  general  there  are  two 
extreme  functions  of  the  living-room.  In  one 
case  there  should  be  a  sufficient  intensity  of 
general  illumination  so  that  the  faces  of  the  oc- 
cupants can  be  readily  distinguished  during  con- 
versation. The  decorative  portables  may  also 
operate,  thereby  furnishing  interesting  variety. 


THE  LIVING-BOOM  93 

The  other  extreme  occasion  is  one  of  restfulness. 
Localized  lighting,  with  a  small  amount  of  gen- 
eral illumination,  affords  a  restful  environment 
which  is  most  desired  for  reading  or  for  con- 
templation, but  the  outlying  regions  must  not 
be  too  dark,  if  the  most  comfortable  condition 
for  the  eyes  is  to  be  obtained.  Between  these 
two  extremes  all  the  lighting  requirements  of 
the  living-room  are  found,  and  they  can  be  met 
by  adequate  portables  as  satisfactorily  as  may 
be  desired. 

In  the  living-room  and,  in  .fact,  in  most  rooms 
the  illuminants  of  warm  tints,  such  as  the 
candle-flame,  are  generally  desired  by  those 
who  are  sensitive  to  the  esthetic  features  of 
their  environment.  Many  persons  are  still  us- 
ing the  carbon  filament  lamps  because  of  their 
warm  color.  This  warm  tone  may  be  obtained 
to  some  extent  by  means  of  tinted  shades,  but 
it  is  more  easily  obtained  by  a  tinted  lamp. 
However,  the  mistake  is  made  of  using  amber, 
instead  of  warm  yellow.  Experiments  with  in- 
candescent filament-lamps  tinted  to  match  the 
color  of  the  candle-flame  emphasize  the  charm 
of  tinted  light  in  the  home.  Color  is  demanded 
in  every  other  aspect  of  the  home  where  artis- 


94  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tic  considerations  are  present,  and  it  is  bound 
to  become  more  and  more  utilized  in  lighting. 
In  fact,  its  possibilities  in  lighting  are  very  ex- 
tensive and  in  some  respects  outrank  color  in 
decoration  and  furnishing.  The  day  is  ap- 
proaching when  the  lighting  artist  will  in  every 
sense  "  paint  with  light. "  Photographic  half- 
tones are  unsatisfactory  for  representing  light- 
ing effects,  because  they  cannot  record  the  sub- 
tle charm  of  light.  Indeed,  it  is  obvious  that 
they  cannot  by  reflected  light  express  primary 
light.  Furthermore,  at  best  a  photograph  rep- 
resents only  one  case,  and  in  a  field  in  which 
the  endless  variety  of  conditions  and  taste  holds 
forth,  a  single  example  may  be  as  misleading 
as  it  may  be  useful. 

It  is  unwise  to  present  specific  rules  in  a  field 
of  lighting  where  taste  is  such  a  dominant  fac- 
tor, but  it  is  safe  to  indicate  underlying  princi- 
ples which  are  not  subservient  to  taste.  These 
underlying  principles  are  based  upon  the  psy- 
chology of  light  and  color,  upon  practical  con- 
siderations, and  upon  the  desirability  of  variety 
in  lighting  effects.  Certain  aspects  have  been 
barely  touched  upon  because  they  are  dealt  with 
in  detail  in  other  chapters.  A  brief  summary 


THE  LIVING-ROOM  95 

at  this  point  of  some  of  the  foundation  princi- 
ples of  successful  lighting  in  the  living-room 
should  be  helpful.  There  should  be  an  adequate 
supply  of  outlets,  especially  baseboard  recep- 
tacles for  portable  lamps.  One  baseboard  out- 
let for  each  fifty  square  feet  of  floor-area  is 
usually  satisfactory.  These  outlets  should  be 
located  after  a  thoughtful  consideration  of  the 
disposition  of  furniture.  At  this  point  imag- 
ination, or  the  ability  to  visualize  the  possible 
arrangements  of  furniture,  is  a  valuable  asset. 
This  view  shows  what  an  important  position  the 
householder  holds  in  designing  the  lighting. 
The  architect  and  builder  should  be  expert  in 
this  field,  in  order  that  they  may  take  care  of 
details  and  supply  suggestions,  but  lighting 
finally  calls  for  the  same  consideration  by  the 
householder  as  does  the  selection  of  furnish- 
ings. 

Although  portable  lamps  qualify  completely 
in  the  lighting  of  the  living-room,  ceiling  outlets 
may  be  provided  when  the  house  is  being  built 
at  a  negligible  cost  as  insurance  against  future 
developments.  Ceiling-fixtures  are  not  ordin- 
arily as  satisfactory  in  the  living-room  as  port- 
able lamps,  for  they  are  generally  glaring  or 


96  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

annoying  to  the  occupants.  Furthermore,  they 
supply  symmetrical  monotonous  lighting  effects 
appropriate  for  an  office  but  lacking  the  qual- 
ities which  tend  to  forestall  monotony  and  to 
make  this  room  a  quiet  haven  of  rest.  Ceiling- 
fixtures  cannot  add  any  charm  to  a  well-pro- 
portioned room,  but  they  can  easily  subtract 
some  from  it.  Reading  can  be  done  most  com- 
fortably near  a  satisfactory  portable  lamp,  and 
the  satisfactoriness  of  portable  lamps  for  this 
purpose  can  be  determined  readily  before  pur- 
chasing. 

Wall-brackets  are  chiefly  of  decorative  value, 
and  they  should  be  equipped  with  dense  shades 
and  small  lamps.  If  the  disposition  of  such 
articles  of  furniture  as  a  desk,  a  lounge,  or  an 
easy  chair  is  predetermined,  brackets  with  pend- 
ent shades  may  be  installed  in  locations  where 
they  may  be  useful  as  well  as  ornamental. 

Portable  lamps  represent  the  most  mobile 
system  of  lighting  available  for  the  living- 
room.  When  general  lighting  is  not  provided 
for  by  any  other  fixture,  a  portable  lamp  should 
be  available  which  provides  an  indirect  compo- 
nent. In  large  rooms  two  lamps  of  this  type 
may  be  necessary  to  supply  adequate  general 


THE  LIVING-KOOM  97 

lighting  for  those  occasions  which  demand  it. 

If  ceiling-fixtures  are  already  installed,  they 
should  be  given  every  attention  necessary  to 
reduce  glare.  The  shades  should  be  of  dense 
material  and  of  such  shape  that  the  light- 
sources  are  not  visible.  Their  best  function 
would  be  to  supply  a  general  illumination  of 
moderate  intensity,  and  this  light  may  be  tinted 
if  desired.  However,  they  should  be  used  only 
when  necessary,  and  portable  lamps  should  be 
available  for  the  quiet  hours  in  the  living-room. 


VII 

THE   DINING-ROOM 

BY  comparison  with  the  living-room  dis- 
cussed in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  din- 
ing-room in  some  respects  represents  the  other 
extreme.  The  arrangement  of  furniture  in  the 
dining-room  is  very  definite,  and  the  setting  in 
this  respect  is  never  changed.  Symmetry  is  a 
dominant  note  in  the  setting  of  most  dining- 
rooms.  The  dining-table  is  in  the  center  of  the 
room,  and  the  technical  problems  involved  in 
the  lighting  may  be  solved  in  a  straight-for- 
ward manner.  Variety  of  occasions  is  found 
in  the  living-room,  but  the  dining-room  is  used 
almost  exclusively  for  the  purpose  indicated  by 
its  name.  Its  other  uses  are  those  to  which  it 
adapts  itself  readily  without  a  change  in  the 
setting  or  in  the  lighting  requirements.  The 
lighting  effect  should  be  quiet  and  restful,  but 
impelling.  Here  the  subtle  attraction  and  the 
innate  cheerfulness  of  proper  lighting  may  be 
employed  with  admirable  results  upon  the  fam- 

98 


THE  DINING-ROOM  99 

ily  circle.  On  the  other  hand,  an  elaborate 
dinner  is  an  occasion  for  the  utilization  of  light 
for  its  effectiveness,  and  there  are  excellent 
reasons  for  equipping  the  dining-room  with 
wiring  and  lighting  accessories  adequate  for 
these  special  purposes.  The  dining-room  af- 
fords one  of  the  most  fascinating  problems  of 
lighting  in  the  home. 

The  psychology  of  light  is  capable  of  analysis, 
and  if  one  studies  and  experiments  with  light- 
ing in  the  dining-room,  he  reaches  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  table  should  be  the  most  intensely 
illuminated  or  brightest  area  in  the  room. 
Matters  of  taste  cannot  be  subjected  to  simple 
unvarying  rules,  but  usually  beneath  them  are 
to  be  found  certain  underlying  principles. 
When  a  party  gathers  round  a  dining-table,  the 
members  should  be  interested  in  each  other  and 
in  what  the  table  affords.  A  brightly  illumin- 
ated table  holds  the  attention  of  the  diners  and 
a  low  intensity  in  the  outskirts  of  the  room 
hems  them  in.  That  the  table  should  be  the 
brightest  area  in  the  room  is  easily  demon- 
strated by  experiment.  If  a  dining-table  should 
be  the  dominantly  lighted  area  in  the  room, 
why  are  so  many  dining-rooms  lighted  other- 


100  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

wise?  The  answer  is  the  same  as  that  given 
to  many  questions  pertaining  to  present  prac- 
tice in  residence  lighting — the  householder  has 
not  seen  the  possibilities  and  effectiveness  of 
lighting  effects  and  his  conception  and  that  of 
others  responsible  for  lighting  the  home  is  in- 
adequate. Comparisons  are  the  most  effective 
means  of  determining  appropriate  lighting 
effects,  but  these  can  be  made  satisfactorily 
only  in  a  room  fitted  for  the  purpose.  How 
simple  it  would  be  to  implant  these  ideas  if 
effective  comparisons  could  be  produced  in 
writing  or  if  the  reader  could  visit  a  fixture- 
dealer  and  witness  these  comparisons  in  reality. 
This  new  era  of  lighting  will  demand  demon- 
stration-rooms, just  as  stores  equip  "  model 
homes " — model  in  all  respects  except  lighting, 
which  usually  is  either  ignored  or  handled  in 
the  superficial  manner  which  gives  attention 
only  to  fixtures  as  objects. 

In  discussing  the  lighting  of  the  dining-room 
it  appears  best  to  analyze  the  various  methods 
which  have  been  employed,  pointing  out  their 
defects  and  desirable  features.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  the  decorator  often  employs  wall- 
brackets  in  elaborate  dining-rooms.  They  may 


THE  DINING^EOOlf  ;10i 

be  artistic  objects,  but  despite  their  beauty, 
they  are  inappropriate  for  providing  the  im- 
portant lighting  of  a  dining-table.  In  fact, 
from  the  standpoint  of  lighting  they  have  little 
reason  to  exist  at  all  in  such  a  room.  Even 
though  the  table  is  lighted  by  local  lamps  in  the 
form  of  candlesticks,  the  lighted  brackets  are 
distracting  and  usually  glaring.  The  attention 
of  the  diners  is  sure  to  wander  to  them,  and 
that  feeling  of  unity  so  essential  to  a  harmon- 
ious effect  is  lacking.  There  is  strife  between 
the  center  of  interest  and  these  "  side-shows. " 
Little  can  be  said  in  favor  of  wall-brackets  as 
ordinarily  used  in  a  dining-room,  even  as  sec- 
ondary fixtures,  and  there  is  much  evidence 
upon  which  they  may  be  condemned.  If  they 
are  heavily  shaded,  equipped  with  very  small 
lamps,  and  merely  flank  certain  articles  of  fur- 
niture, they  may  be  delightful  notes  in  the  set- 
ting. 

Well-shaded  candlesticks  containing  small 
lamps  may  be  attractive  on  the  table  and  also 
may  be  very  effective.  They  must  be  short,  in 
order  that  the  view  of  the  diners  is  not  ob- 
structed, but  too  often  they  are  a  source  of 
glare.  Their  best  office  is  to  supplement  a  low 


'10*2  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

intensity  of  general  lighting  from  fixtures  which 
alone  do  not  provide  a  satisfactory  effect.  If 
their  disadvantages  are  overcome,  they  add  a 
charm  to  the  setting,  but  the  unsightly  annoying 
wire  which  often  dangles  from  the  central  fix- 
ture usually  detracts  from  their  satisfactori- 
ness.  Candlesticks  on  the  buffet  provide  a  de- 
lightful touch,  but  too  often  these  are  so  bright 
that  they  overbalance  the  primary  lighting  ef- 
fect. Miniature  lamps  are  satisfactory  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  low  voltage  may  be  obtained 
from  a  small  transformer.  A  satisfactory  ex- 
pedient is  to  connect  two  lamps  of  ordinary  volt- 
age in  series.  A  further  refinement  in  this  case 
is  a  series-parallel  switch,  for  there  still  may  be 
occasions  at  the  buffet  when  the  higher  intensity 
of  a  parallel  connection  is  desirable. 

An  analysis  of  lighting  for  the  dining-room 
is  best  achieved,  perhaps,  by  a  critical  examina- 
tion of  fixtures  which  are  in  use  at  present, 
followed  by  new  suggestions.  There  are  several 
types  of  fixtures  which  illuminate  the  dining- 
table  predominantly,  but  often  certain  details 
are  neglected,  with  the  result  that  the  best  effect 
is  not  obtained.  The  shape  and  height  of 
shades  are  usually  very  important  factors. 


THE  DINING-ROOM  103 

The  candelabra,  a  cluster  of  hybrid  candles 
surmounted  by  frosted  lamps,  is  a  ceiling-fixture 
which  has  been  widely  installed  in  dining-rooms 
in  recent  years.  When  these  are  not  equipped 
with  shades,  as  is  the  case  in  Figure  41,  the 
dominant  light  is  distributed  upon  the  ceiling. 
The  frosted  lamps,  hanging  high,  also  contrib- 
ute to  the  effect  of  a  dusky  haze  below  the  fix- 
ture, shadows  on  the  table,  and  a  brilliant  ceil- 
ing above.  The  lighting  effect  is  not  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  inverted  bowl  and  is 
far  from  the  best.  If  the  lamps  are  equipped 
with  suitable  shades  (it  is  easiest  to  use  silk  or 
parchment),  much  of  the  light  may  be  directed 
downward,  provided  they  possess  white  linings. 
Although  the  use  of  shades  improves  the  cande- 
labra, it  is  not  wholly  satisfactory,  for  the  diner, 
on  looking  up,  sees  these  lamps  or  the  bright 
inner  linings  of  the  shades.  In  fact,  the  con- 
sciousness of  their  presence  is  distracting. 
This  and  many  other  experiments  indicate  that 
dining-room  fixtures  should  not  be  hung  high, 
unless  they  are  specially  designed  to  confine 
the  downward  component  to  the  table.  A 
candelabra  hung  low  and  equipped  with  dense 
deep  shades  of  silk,  parchment  or  glass  can  be 


104  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

quite  satisfactory,  but  it  must  be  much  lower 
than  it  is  ordinarily  hung. 

The  inverted  bowl  may  be  criticised  for  light- 
ing the  upper  part  of  the  room  predominantly. 
It  may  be  used  to  provide  a  low  intensity  of 
general  lighting  of  different  tints  if  the  dining- 
table  is  supplied  with  small  lamps.  Indeed,  the 
latter  is  a  common  way  out  for  householders 
who  come  to  realize  that  dining  under  the  gen- 
eral lighting  from  the  inverted  bowl  which  is 
installed  is  unsatisfactory.  There  are  thou- 
sands of  semi-indirect  bowls  in  use  in  dining- 
rooms,  but  they  are  sold  as  objects,  and  not  for 
the  lighting  effects  which  they  produce.  Semi- 
indirect  fixtures  have  contributed  much  to  the 
development  of  lighting.  They  have  shielded 
the  eyes  from  the  constantly  increasing  bright- 
ness of  modern  light-sources,  but  they  are  out 
of  place  in  the  dining-room,  except  to  provide 
secondary  general  lighting  of  a  low  intensity. 

The  shower,  consisting  of  a  group  of  pendent 
shades,  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  fixtures 
for  lighting  the  dining-table  among  those  which 
have  been  widely  installed,  provided  the  shades 
are  of  proper  shape  and  are  hung  low  enough. 
Generally,  the  shades  should  not  be  more  than 


THE  DINING-ROOM 


105 


three  feet  above  the  table,  their  lower  aperture 
should  be  small,  and  they  should  be  deep  and 


Fia.    14 — 'Illustrating   satisfactory   and   unsatisfactory   shades  for  a 
shower  for  lighting  the  dming-table 

of  dense  glass  or  other  material.  Usually, 
bowl-frosted  lamps  are  more  satisfactory  than 
clear  ones.  The  downward  light  from  these 


106  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

dense  shades  is  much  more  powerful  than  the 
diffused  light,  and  therefore  the  table  is  domi- 
nantly  illuminated.  If  the  shades  are  of  a 
warm  tint,  the  effect  may  be  quite  delightful. 
However,  a  shower  which  is  quite  satisfactory 
when  hung  low  is  usually  very  unsatisfactory 
when  too  high.  The  aim  in  lighting  the  din  ing- 
table  should  be  to  keep  the  distribution  of  direct 
light  confined  considerably  below  a  point  about 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  vertically  above  the 
edge  of  the  table. 

In  Figure  14  satisfactory  and  unsatisfactory 
shades  for  a  shower  are  illustrated.  The  usual 
eye-level  is  indicated,  and  the  normal  position 
of  the  eyes  is  on  that  level  at  a  point  (indicated 
by  the  asterisk)  about  twelve  to  fifteen  inches 
above  the  table.  The  shades  should  be  of  a 
shape  to  conceal  the  lamps  from  the  eyes.  The 
cone  of  light  shown  emerging  from  the  shade 
should  be  confined  below  the  position  of  the  eyes 
of  the  diner.  It  is  seen  that  the  shade  on  the 
left  meets  the  requirements,  while  the  one  on 
the  right  has  an  aperture  too  large  to  be  satis- 
factory. If  the  chains  or  rods  supporting  the 
shades  are  made  longer,  so  that  the  shades  are 
lowered  somewhat,  there  is  less  danger  of  glare. 


THE  DINING-KOOM 


107 


It  is  seen  that  the  remedies  for  an  unsatisfac- 
tory   fixture    are    simple    in    this    case.    The 
shower  with  dense   shades   of  proper   shape, 
depth  and  height  can  be  safely  chosen  for  the 
dining-room,  if  it  meets  the  desires  artistically. 
The  old  type  of  dome,  if  properly  designed 
_ 


FIG.  15 — Illustrating  the  glaring  effect  which  results  in  hanging  the 
dome  too  high 


108  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

and  hung,  provided  a  much  better  effect  than 
fixtures  which  superseded  it.  Its  chief  faults 
were  its  obtrusiveness  and  its  wide  aperture, 
which  made  it  necessary  to  suspend  it  very  low. 
If  it  were  raised  higher,  the  lamps  became  vis- 
ible and  glare  was  the  result.  In  fact,  this  has 
been  a  common  misuse  of  this  type  of  fixture,  as 
illustrated  in  Figure  15.  But  instead  of  cor- 
recting these  defects  or  of  including  its  desir- 
able effect  in  new  fixtures,  the  lighting  prin- 
ciple of  the  dome  was  abandoned  when  more 
modern  fixtures  were  adopted.  Fixture-manu- 
facturers have  not  realized  that  fixtures  as  ob- 
jects may  go  out  of  style,  but  fundamental  light- 
ing principles  do  not.  This  is  an  axiom  which 
should  be  memorized  by  the  fixture  designer, 
the  architect  and  the  householder.  When 
proper  lighting  effects  are  determined  for  a 
definite  setting  like  the  dining-table,  these 
should  be  retained  and  improved  upon  in  new 
fixtures,  instead  of  being  sacrificed.  However, 
this  is  one  of  the  penalties  which  lighting  has 
had  to  pay  for  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  pri- 
mary importance  of  lighting  effects  and  the 
secondary  importance  of  lighting  fixtures  as  ob- 
jects. 


THE  DINING-EOOM 


109 


Modern  domes  have  recently  again  come  into 
use,  but  they  are  improvements  over  those  more 
obstrusive  ones  of  earlier  years.  They  are 
smaller,  and  with  the  greater  luminous  intensity 
of  modern  lamps  it  has  become  possible  to  place 
the  light-source  high  in  the  dome  and  thus  to 
shield  the  eyes  from  it.  But  this  dome  must 
be  hung  rather  low  to  be  satisfactory. 

The  essential  features  of  the  modern  dome 
are  illustrated  in  Figure  16.  The  dome  is  made 


FIG.  16 — A  modern  dome  of  dense  glass.  It  is  deep  enough  so  that 
a  single  lamp,  preferably  of  diffusing  glass  installed  as  shown,  is  -well 
shielded.  The  small  opal  glass  shade  O  is  added  to  reduce  the  illumina- 
tion on  the  inner  side  of  the  dome  and  thereby  to  reduce  the  brightness 
of  the  inner  portion  which  is  visible 


110  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

of  very  dense  diffusing  glass  and  is  rendered 
of  greater  absorption  and  consequent  lower 
brightness  by  toning  its  exterior  to  a  gray, 
brown,  or  other  suitable  color.  It  must  be  hung 
low,  but  its  maximum  height  depends  upon  the 
size  of  the  table.  It  is  best  to  keep  its  lowest 
point  t  within  two  feet  of  the  table.  A  high- 
intensity  diffusing  lamp  (50-  or  75-watt  gas- 
filled  lamp)  is  placed  high,  as  shown,  and  an- 
other shade  of  opal  glass  (not  commonly  used) 
has  been  included  as  a  means  for  screening  as 
much  light  as  possible  from  the  inner  surface 
of  the  dome.  The  lower  aperture  of  the  dome 
must  be  above  the  eye-level,  and  although  the 
lamp  is  still  screened  from  the  eyes,  a  portion 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  inner  surface  of  the 
dome  is  inevitably  visible,  as  indicated  by  the 
line  of  sight.  For  this  reason  this  lower  part 
should  be  of  a  low  brightness.  The  small  opal- 
glass  shade  surrounding  the  lamp  can  be  elimi- 
nated if  the  lower  portion  of  the  inner  surface 
of  the  dome  is  toned  a  dark  gray  or  other  suit- 
able color.  This  can  be  done  as  a  part  of  the 
design  which  will  be  visible  when  the  fixture  is 
lighted. 
With  the  aim  of  incorporating  the  desirable 


THE  DINING-ROOM  111 

feature  of  the  dome  into  a  fixture  of  modern 
appearance  which  could  be  hung  high,  the  fix- 


/ 


/ 


,      DtffECT  L/6rtr    x 

/  COMWMZD  TC  TABLE  \ 


FIG,  17 — A  simple  fixture  designed  to  retain  and  improve  upon  the 
lighting  effect  obtained  by  means  of  a  dome.  The  result  is  a  fixture 
of  entirely  different  appearance  which  can  be  hung  nearly  three  feet 
above  the  table  owing  to  the  accurate  control  of  the  direct  light  which 
is  emitted  downward 

ture  whose  elemental  details  are  illustrated  in 
Fgure  17  was  developed.  This  exemplifies  how 
simple  expedients  can  be  made  to  serve  admir- 


112  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ably  the  requirements  of  lighting.  This  fixture 
appears  to  the  casual  observer  like  an  inverted 
bowl  or  so-called  semi-indirect  unit,  but  it  con- 
tains several  interesting  features.  A  small 
aperture,  between  three  and  four  inches  in 
diameter,  was  made  in  the  center  of  a  semi- 
indirect  bowl  of  opal  glass  and  a  slender  shade 
of  opal  glass  was  supported  by  a  metal  ring  in 
this  hole.  A  lamp  was  placed  at  such  a  posi- 
tion in  this  central  shade  that  at  a  certain  height 
of  the  fixture  (about  thirty  inches  above  the  top 
of  the  dining-table)  the  cone  of  direct  light 
emerging  from  the  aperture  illuminated  the  top 
of  the  table.  The  lower  part  of  this  inner  shade 
was  toned  a  dark  shade  of  orange  and  curved 
outward.  Both  of  these  expedients  tend  to  re- 
duce the  brightness  of  the  narrow  ellipse  which 
the  eye  sees.  Around  this  inner  shade  and  in- 
side the  bowl  four  sockets  were  provided  for 
small  lamps.  Thus  a  direct  component  of  well- 
controlled  light  illuminates  the  table  and  an  up- 
ward component  provides  a  general  illumina- 
tion of  low  intensity.  When  the  lamps  are  of 
proper  size  the  effect  is  delightful.  The  glass- 
ware is  toned  a  warm  yellow,  so  that  even  when 
a  "  daylight "  lamp  is  used  for  the  direct  light, 


THE  DINING-ROOM  113 

the  bowl  still  appears  of  a  warm  tint.  The  din- 
ing-table  with  its  white  linen,  its  silverware,  its 
decorated  china,  and  its  flowers  is  a  beautiful 
setting  under  this  artificial  daylight.  By 
means  of  this  fixture  the  cold  artificial  daylight 
is  confined  to  the  table.  The  glass  bowl  emits 
light  of  a  warmer  color  to  the  faces  of  the 
diners  and  to  the  outskirts  of  the  room.  The 
small  lamps  in  the  large  bowl  may  be  tinted  yel- 
low with  excellent  results.  Of  course  an  ordi- 
nary lamp  may  be  used  in  the  small  shade  to 
produce  the  direct  light,  for  this  is  somewhat 
a  matter  of  taste. 

The  fixture  described  in  the  foregoing  has 
proved  very  satisfactory  for  the  dining-table, 
but  it  may  be  varied  considerably  in  design. 
The  cross-section  shown  is  of  the  simplest  de- 
tails. The  large  glass  bowl  may  be  replaced  by 
a  silk  shade  supported  upon  the  inner  glass 
shade.  In  fact,  wire  frames  may  be  obtained  in 
any  design,  and  they  are  so  easily  covered  with 
paper,  silk  or  other  textiles  that  the  householder 
can  construct  fixtures  to  suit  his  needs.  A  more 
elaborate  fixture  of  the  type  described  is  illus- 
trated in  Figure  18.  There  are  three  circuits, 
two  of  which  provide  the  direct  and  indirect 


114 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


Fio.  18 — A  more  elaborate  type  of  the  fixture  illustrated  in  simple 
detail  in  Fig.  17.  This  fixture  contains  three  circuits  which  provide 
direct,  semi-indirect,  and  indirect  lighting  respectively 

components  respectively.  The  lamps  connected 
to  these  circuits  are  contained  in  silvered  re- 
flectors. A  band  of  yellow  silk  below  the  reflec- 
tor supplying  the  downward  component  per- 
mits some  light  to  be  diffused  into  the  inside 
of  the  large  glass  bowl.  The  eye  sees  a  part  of 
this  silk  band,  instead  of  the  silvered  reflector 
above  it,  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  latter  ex- 
tended down  to  the  aperture.  The  third  circuit 
supplies  lamps  which  illuminate  the  bowl.  By 


THE  DINING-ROOM  115 

carefully  selecting  tints  for  the  lamps  of  the 
three  circuits,  beautiful  effects  can  be  obtained. 
A  daylight  lamp  for  the  downward  component 
and  warm  yellow  lamps  for  the  upward  com- 
ponents provide  a  pleasing  contrast.  From 
such  a  unit  interesting  variety  is  introduced  and 
the  light  is  thoroughly  controlled.  It  repre- 
sents the  lighting  effect  of  the  older  type  of 
dome  greatly  improved.  Furthermore,  this 
unit,  owing  to  the  depth  and  small  aperture  of 
the  inner  shade,  can  be  hung  so  high  that  it  is 
not  annoying.  This  is  due  to  the  excellent  con- 
trol of  the  downward  component. 

Interesting  effects  of  colored  light  may  be 
obtained  by  means  of  lamps  concealed  in  wall- 
boxes  (Figure  49)  or  in  a  cove  (Figure  54) 
around  the  room  at  the  height  of  the  plate-rail. 
If  two  circuits  are  installed  in  a  cove  and  pro- 
vided with  blue  and  yellow-orange  lamps  re- 
spectively, the  delight  of  cold  and  warm  tinted 
light  may  be  added  as  secondary  effects  to  the 
primary  lighting.  By  combining  the  two  a  rose 
tint  is  obtained.  These  have  been  installed 
with  considerable  success.  They  are  secondary 
effects,  inasmuch  as  their  intensities  are  much 
lower  than  necessary  for  adequately  lighting  the 


116  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

room.  They  are  the  beginnings  of  an  era  in 
which  the  charms  of  color  are  to  be  obtained  in 
lighting  as  well  as  in  decoration,  dress,  etc.,  and 
they  represent  some  of  the  possibilities  of  the 
mobility  of  lighting. 

One  or  two  baseboard  outlets  are  desired  in 
the  dining-room,  besides  that  for  connecting 
candlesticks  on  the  buffet.  Sometimes  it  is  con- 
venient to  attach  electric  devices  to  the  base- 
board outlet,  but  a  connection  may  be  provided 
on  the  central  fixture  for  this  purpose.  If  the 
floor-covering  may  be  split  at  a  seam  or  pro- 
vided in  any  manner  with  a  hole  under  the  table, 
a  floor-plug  may  be  installed  at  that  point.  The 
wires  may  lead  up  through  a  leg  in  the  table 
and  terminate  at  another  plug  or  even  two  under 
the  edge  of  the  table  wherever  desired.  This 
makes  a  convenient  method  for  connecting  elec- 
trical devices  which  are  being  used  on  the  table. 
The  candlesticks  for  the  table  may  also  be  con- 
nected at  this  point. 

In  general,  this  discussion  has  been  based 
upon  the  assumption  that  the  dining-table 
should  be  more  highly  illuminated  than  any 
other  area  in  the  room.  That  this  is  true  may 
be  readily  determined  by  adequate  experiments. 


VIII 

VARIOUS   ROOMS 

THE  two  most  important  rooms  in  the  home 
from  the  standpoint  of  lighting  have  al- 
ready been  discussed.  The  general  principles 
expounded  are  applicable  to  some  extent  in 
other  rooms,  although  special  problems  are  en- 
countered as  we  progress  through  the  house. 
However,  it  appears  best  to  group  in  this  chap- 
ter the  remaining  rooms,  including  those  in 
which  the  lighting  is  dominantly  utilitarian. 
Certain  aspects  of  lighting  in  all  the  rooms  will 
be  touched  upon  very  briefly,  because  they  are 
discussed  in  detail  in  later  chapters. 

Reception-hall.  In  the  reception-hall  a  ceil- 
ing-fixture is  usually  most  practicable,  but  an 
outlet  may  be  provided  for  a  portable  lamp. 
This  pendent  fixture  may  be  an  elaborate  lan- 
tern of  silk  or  colored  glass  panels,  or,  where  ap- 
propriate, a  colonial  "lamp"  is  a  delightful 
note.  A  touch  of  color  at  this  point  is  effective, 
but  the  intensity  of  illumination  should  be 

117 


118  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

greater  than  is  usually  found.  In  fact,  recep- 
tion-halls are  often  dingy,  despite  the  impres- 
siveness  and  utility  of  adequate  lighting  at  this 
point  in  the  home. 

Library  or  den.  The  library  or  den  is  quite 
similar  to  the  living-room  during  its  quiet  oc- 
casions. Satisfactory  reading-lamps  should  be 
available,  and  the  baseboard  and  wall-recep- 
tacles should  be  laid  out  after  due  consideration 
of  the  arrangement  of  the  furniture.  Kestful- 
ness  is  the  keynote  of  such  a  room,  and  too  much 
general  lighting  or  glaring  brackets  and  other 
fixtures  defeat  this  ideal. 

Sun-room.  The  sun-room  partakes  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  living-room,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally smaller.  Portable  lamps  for  reading 
purposes  are  desirable.  General  lighting,  when 
the  occasion  demands  it,  may  be  obtained  by 
means  of  a  portable  lamp  supplying  an  upward 
component  such  as  illustrated  in  Figure  10.  In 
Figure  19  is  shown  a  simplified  design  which 
permits  the  use  of  a  shallow  shade.  One  diffus- 
ing lamp  is  used  in  a  small  opal-glass  shade,  and 
this  becomes  a  semi-indirect  fixture.  Other 
sockets  may  be  added  if  desired.  Owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  room,  a  central  fixture  simulating 


VARIOUS  ROOMS 


119 


a  flower-basket  or  imitation  flower-boxes 
(Figure  49)  on  the  wall  in  which  lamps  are 
concealed  may  be  utilized  to  supply  the  general 


FIG.  19 — This  illustrates  a  simplified  portable  which  supplies  direct 
and  indirect  components  simultaneously.  A  large  lamp  (75-watt  to 
150  watt)  is  surrounded  by  a  small  inner  shade  of  opal  glass.  Other 
sockets  may  be  added  if  more  direct  light  is  desired 

lighting.  Even  an  "urn"  on  a  pedestal 
(Figure  50)  is  a  satisfactory  place  for  conceal- 
ing a  reflector  and  lamps  for  indirect  lighting. 
Bedroom.  In  the  bedrooms  the  best  arrange- 
ment of  the  furniture  should  have  been  de- 
termined, in  the  case  of  new  houses,  before  the 
windows  were  located.  It  then  becomes  easy 
to  determine  the  positions  of  the  outlets,  if  cer- 


120  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tain  principles  are  understood.  A  wall-bracket 
about  six  feet  above  the  floor  may  be  located 
on  each  side  of  the  dresser.  A  distance  of  five 
feet  between  these  two  brackets  is  desirable, 
even  though  the  dresser  may  be  much  less  in 
width.  (See  Figure  20).  This  distance  tends 
to  reduce  the  glare,  but  if  the  shades  are  dense, 
discomfort  is  seldom  experienced  in  the  bed- 
room, because  the  wall-coverings  are  usually  of 
light  tints.  A  baseboard  outlet  should  be  pro- 
vided for  small  dresser-lamps  or  for  brackets, 
if  they  are  mounted  upon  the  dresser.  The 
dressing-table  is  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
but  inasmuch  as  the  user  is  usually  seated,  the 
brackets  should  be  lower.  However,  in  this 
case  it  is  best  to  provide  a  baseboard  receptacle 
for  dresser-lamps.  If,  besides  these,  a  small 
fixture  is  suspended  from  the  ceiling  above  the 
center  of  the  dressing-table,  the  top  of  the  head 
will  be  well  illuminated.  This  combination  of 
brackets  or  table-lamps  and  a  suspended  fixture 
meets  all  requirements  at  the  dresser  or  dress- 
ing-table. A  baseboard  outlet  near  the  head 
of  the  bed  will  provide  a  connection  for  a  port- 
able lamp  which  is  both  decorative  and  useful 
in  the  bedroom.  The  room  may  be  wired  for  a 


VARIOUS  KOOMS  121 

central  ceiling  outlet,  but  a  fixture  at  this  point 
does  not  provide  proper  lighting  for  important 
places  such  as  the  dresser  and  dressing-table. 
A  central  ceiling-fixture,  if  used,  should  be  de- 
pended upon  only  for  general  lighting  of  moder- 
ate intensity,  except  in  very  small  rooms.  A 
tinted  inverted  bowl,  with  possibly  an  appro- 
priate hand-painted  design,  is  a  desirable  unit 
for  this  purpose.  Another  unit  which  may  be 
equipped  with  a  decorative  shade  harmonizing 
with  the  draperies  or  wall-coverings  is  an  in- 
verted bowl  (with  or  without  a  central  opening 
in  the  bottom)  from  the  edge  of  which  a  silk 
shade  suspends,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  7. 

Closets.  The  closets  should  be  wired  for  a 
pendent  lamp  if  they  do  not  receive  sufficient 
daylight  and  artificial  light.  Such  lamps  will  be 
welcomed  often  and  will  pay  for  themselves 
many  times.  Switches  which  operate  when  the 
door  opens  are  not  generally  desirable  for 
closets  in  the  home.  Usually  a  pull-chain 
socket  is  satisfactory. 

Sewing-room.  The  sewing-room  in  a  middle- 
class  home  is  usually  a  small  room  which  may 
serve  as  a  bedroom.  A  central  fixture  is  a  fair 
compromise  for  a  small  bedroom,  but  for  sewing 


122 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


an  intense  local  illumination  is  desirable.  If 
the  room  is  definitely  set  aside  for  sewing  pur- 
poses, a  pendent  shade,  hung  low,  may  serve 
well,  but  it  is  desirable  to  provide  a  baseboard 
outlet  for  a  portable  lamp.  The  daylight  lamp 
has  been  found  useful  for  sewing  purposes. 

Bathroom.  The  problem  in  the  bathroom  is 
to  provide  a  suitable  arrangement  of  lamps  for 
the  mirror.  The  solution  of  this  problem  is 
very  simple,  despite  the  many  devices  which 


PlG.   20 — Satisfactory  lighting   at  the   bathroom  mirror   is  best  accom- 
plished by  means  of  two  opal  lamps  or  simple  brackets  as  shown 

have  been  designed.  In  order  to  see  an  object 
it  must  be  illuminated,  whether  it  is  viewed 
directly  or  its  image  is  viewed  in  the  mirror. 
Two  light-sources — one  on  each  side  of  the  mir- 
ror— at  a  height  of  about  sixty-five  inches  serve 
the  need  very  well.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
illustrated  in  Figure  20.  If  upright  brackets 
are  used,  the  outlets  for  wires  should  be  about 
five  feet  above  the  floor.  They  are  low  enough 


VARIOUS  EOOMS  123 

to  eliminate  annoying  shadows  during  such  op- 
erations as  shaving,  and  one  being  on  each  side, 
the  face  is  well  illuminated.  The  light-sources 
are  well  out  of  the  direct  line  of  vision  and  no 
discomforting  glare  is  experienced  if  small, 
dense,  upright  shades  are  used.  In  fact,  pull- 
chain  porcelain  sockets  containing  diffusing 
lamps  are  quite  satisfactory,  but  in  this  case  the 
outlets  for  wires  should  be  about  sixty-five 
inches  above  the  floor.  These  fixtures  provide 
satisfactory  general  lighting  for  the  bathroom. 
A  baseboard-  or  wall-receptacle  should  be 
provided  for  electrical  devices. 

Stairways  and  halls.  Stairways  are  best 
lighted  by  ceiling-balls  or  bowls  controlled  by 
the  usual  three-way  switches.  Fixtures  of  the 
same  character  are  satisfactory  for  halls  and 
vestibules.  Wall-brackets  may  be  used  if  they 
are  more  appropriate,  provided  their  installa- 
tion is  warranted  by  the  structural  conditions. 
However,  stairways  should  be  adequately  illu- 
minated as  a  matter  of  safety,  and  ceiling-fix- 
tures such  as  balls  and  bowls  generally  cannot 
be  excelled. 

Kitchen.  The  common  error  in  the  kitchen 
is  to  suspend  a  combination-fixture  from  the 


124  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

center  of  the  ceiling.  Owing  to  the  gas-burner, 
this  must  extend  considerably  below  the  ceiling 
and  is  often  inconveniently  in  the  way.  Be- 
sides, this  low  position  of  the  light-sources  re- 
duces their  effectiveness,  because  the  worker  is 
often  annoyed  by  his  own  shadow.  A  combina- 
tion-fixture is  valuable  for  emergencies,  but  it 
should  be  a  wall-bracket.  The  central  fixture 
should  be  close  to  the  ceiling,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose an  open  glass  reflector  equipped  with  a 
diffusing  lamp  or  even  a  daylight  lamp  is  satis- 
factory. Wall-brackets  should  be  installed 
over  important  places  such  as  the  stove,  work- 
table,  and  the  sink.  If  the  work-places  in  the 
kitchen  have  been  laid  out  beforehand  with  the 
idea  of  saving  " mileage,"  it  is  easy  to  locate 
the  outlets  for  fixtures. 

Entrance.  At  entrances  it  is  advantageous, 
when  appearances  permit,  to  place  the  lighting- 
fixture  near  the  side  on  which  the  door  opens 
and  at  a  point  not  too  high.  This  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  distinguish  the  features  of  the  caller. 
This  can  be  done  at  the  rear  door  regardless  of 
appearances.  An  illuminated  house-number  is 
an  appreciated  convenience,  whether  it  is  illu- 
minated by  the  entrance  fixture  or  is  a  self- 


VARIOUS  EOOMS  125 

contained  unit  with  translucent  glass  on  which 
the  numbers  are  placed. 

Porch.  The  best  fixture  for  the  porch  is  an 
enclosed  unit  such  as  a  ceiling-ball  or  bowl. 
This  is  often  merely  a  ball  frosted  on  the  inside, 
and  although  sometimes  satisfactory  in  inter- 
iors where  much  light  is  reflected  by  the  walls 
and  ceiling,  it  is  much  inferior  to  a  prismatic 
globe  which  directs  the  light  downward.  Much 
reading  is  done  on  porches  in  the  summertime 
and  a  directive  unit,  even  though  it  must  be  an 
open  prismatic  reflector,  is  quite  desirable. 
Light  is  lost  at  the  open  sides  of  the  pOrch,  and 
the  ceiling  and  wall  of  the  house  do  not  con- 
tribute much  light  by  reflection,  so  that  the  con- 
trol of  light  by  means  of  proper  reflectors  or 
prismatic  balls  is  desirable. 

Basement.  The  basement  of  a  house  is  often 
much  neglected  from  the  standpoint  of  artificial 
light.  Usually  a  light-source  in  the  center  of 
the  basement  near  the  heating-plant  is  con- 
sidered sufficient.  Nevertheless,  a  number  of 
outlets  in  the  basement  is  much  appreciated. 
One  at  the  bottom  of  the  stairs  or  on  the  stair- 
way assures  safety  in  ascending  and  descend- 
ing. A  light-source  above  one  end  of  the  laun- 


126  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

dry-trays  is  desirable,  and  for  this  purpose  a 
100-watt  or  a  150-watt  daylight  lamp  is  satis- 
factory. Outlets  in  the  fuel-bin,  toilet  and 
fruit-closet  are  desirable,  and  indicating  snap- 
switches  at  the  entrances  of  these  rooms  are 
convenient  and  will  eventually  pay  for  them- 
selves by  tending  to  show  when  lamps  are  oper- 
ating needlessly  in  these  enclosed  spaces. 

In  the  foregoing  discussion  fixtures  have  not 
been  discussed  from  an  artistic  standpoint. 
Period  designs  are  determined  by  the  furnish- 
ings and  decorative  scheme,  and  the  artistic 
features  of  fixtures  are  purely  matters  of  taste. 
There  is  much  glassware  which  is  finished  in 
charming  tints  or  with  painted  and  etched  de- 
signs. Fixtures  should  shield  the  light-source 
from  the  eyes  and  the  diffusing  media,  whether 
of  glass  or  textile,  should  be  dense  enough  to 
avoid  glare.  No  fixture  can  be  beautiful  and 
no  lighting  effect  can  be  artistic  which  annoys 
the  eyes.  The  householder  and  all  with  whom 
he  comes  in  contact  in  the  lighting  of  his  house 
must  appreciate  that  fixtures  are  a  means  to 
an  end — a  lighting  effect — if  the  potentiality  of 
lighting  is  to  be  enjoyed. 


VARIOUS  EOOMS  127 

Light  is  a  medium  superior  to  the  decorator's 
media  in  producing  certain  results.  It  is  mo- 
bile, but  this  mobility  cannot  be  utilized  with- 
out adequate  outlets  and  controls,  supplemented 
by  fixtures  which  possess  definite  aims.  The 
most  desirable  fixtures  in  several  rooms  are 
those  from  which  two  or  more  different  light- 
ing effects  are  obtainable.  With  equipment  of 
this  character  the  householder  will  find  in  light- 
ing one  of  the  most  fruitful  sources  of  interest 
and  pleasure  and  his  present  indifference 
toward  lighting  will  change  to  keen  enthusiasm. 

At  this  point  a  few  remarks  concerning  day- 
lighting  may  not  be  amiss,  because  the  location 
of  the  windows  influences  the  position  of  impor- 
tant articles  of  furniture,  which,  in  turn,  in- 
fluence the  location  of  the  outlets.  It  is  often 
obvious  that  windows  are  located  solely  with 
regard  to  the  external  appearance  of  a  house. 
As  already  stated,  the  position  of  important 
pieces  of  furniture,  such  as  beds,  lounge,  read- 
ing-table, desk  and  piano,  should  be  visualized 
before  the  plans  are  approved.  Their  positions 
are  closely  related  to  wall-space,  and  therefore 
to  windows.  Places  of  rest,  such  as  a  settee, 
should  not  face  windows.  By  this  intimate 


128  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

view  it  becomes  much  easier  to  determine  the 
position  of  brackets,  switches  and  other  out- 
lets. This  insures  against  such  absurdities  as 
a  bracket  or  switch  behind  a  door.  The  base- 
board outlets  will  more  likely  be  placed  con- 
venient to  the  piano,  to  the  reading-table,  and 
to  other  definite  articles  of  furniture  which  will 
require  portable  lamps.  In  fact,  it  insures  at- 
tention to  the  lighting  of  a  home  when  the  plans 
are  being  formulated,  instead  of  at  the  time 
when  the  house  is  completed.  Experience  has 
shown  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  middle-class 
home  in  which  negligence  of  the  wiring  is  not 
apparent.  The  importance  of  giving  close  at- 
tention to  lighting  while  the  plans  of  the  house 
are  being  evolved  cannot  be  too  strongly  em- 
phasized. This  is  the  point  in  the  construction 
of  a  house  which  calls  for  the  power  of  visuali- 
zation. 

The  lighting  equipment  of  a  house  and  the 
lighting  effects  obtained  therefrom  express  the 
taste  of  the  householder.  Light  is  a  powerful 
medium  which  may  enhance  the  charm  of  a 
home  or  through  indifference  and  carelessness 
in  its  use  may  tend  to  destroy  the  beauty  of 
decorations  and  furnishings.  In  fact,  the  most 


VARIOUS  BOOMS  129 

delightful  surroundings  may  be  changed  into  an 
unendurable  abode  by  misapplied  light.  A 
century  ago  civilization  was  struggling  along 
with  mere  light.  As  the  nineteenth  century  ad- 
vanced this  gradually  evolved  into  more  light, 
but  the  age  of  adequate  light  did  not  arrive  un- 
til the  advent  of  the  twentieth  century.  Dur- 
ing this  span  the  cost  of  artificial  light  de- 
creased to  one-fiftieth  of  its  initial  value.  Is 
it  not  worth  while  for  the  householder  to  arouse 
his  sense  of  comparative  values!  The  average 
householder  is  to-day  paying  from  five  to  ten 
cents  per  day  for  artificial  light  whose  impor- 
tance is  adequately  emphasized  only  by  depriv- 
ing him  of  it.  The  cost  of  artificial  light  for 
several  hours  per  day  in  the  middle-class  home 
is  comparable  with  the  cost  of  street-car  fares, 
of  daily  papers,  and  of  other  things  of  much 
less  importance.  From  the  standpoint  of  cost 
there  can  be  no  argument  against  artificial  light. 
From  the  standpoint  of  its  effectiveness  there 
are  powerful  arguments  in  its  favor. 


IX 

PLANNING   THE   WIRING 

HAVING  discussed  the  possibilities  of 
lighting  in  the  middle-class  house  in 
previous  chapters,  it  appears  of  interest  to 
summarize  the  subject  by  means  of  typical  wir- 
ing layouts  which  are  justifiable  on  the  basis  of 
the  importance  and  effectiveness  of  artificial 
light  in  the  home.  One  of  the  most  discourag- 
ing factors  in  the  development  of  residence 
lighting  is  the  paucity  of  outlets.  A  number 
of  interests  are  responsible  for  this  condition. 
Those  central  stations  which  continue  to  penal- 
ize the  householder  for  the  installation  of  out- 
lets are  inhibiting  progress  in  lighting.  The 
building  or  electrical  contractor  who  does  not 
encourage  the  installation  of  more  outlets  is 
not  only  failing  to  promote  the  cause  of  light- 
ing but  in  many  cases  is  responsible  for  plac- 
ing a  blight  upon  the  home.  The  architect 
should  appreciate  the  possibilities  of  lighting 
and  should  give  many  practical  suggestions. 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING         131 

The  average  householder  has  about  one  base- 
board outlet  in  his  home.  This  is  especially 
true  of  apartments,  and,  considering  the  in- 
adequacy of  the  other  outlets,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  the  householder  has  not  learned  of  the 
possibilities  of  lighting.  But  this  scarcity  is 
not  confined  to  apartments,  as  is  easily  deter- 
mined. On  investigating  houses  during  their 
construction,  it  is  common  to  find  only  one  or 
two  outlets  in  houses  which  cost  from  $10,000 
to  $25,000.  As  stated  again  and  again,  ade- 
quate wiring  is  essential  to  satisfactory  light- 
ing. 

Sometimes  the  attitude  of  an  electrical  con- 
tractor-dealer is  not  only  one  of  indifference 
but  actually  reactionary  in  character.  For  ex- 
ample, let  us  take  a  case  which  occurred  some 
time  ago.  A  man  building  a  house  for  his  own 
home  had  come  to  realize  that  artificial  light 
was  really  an  important  factor  in  making  a 
house  a  home  and  had  laid  out  the  wiring  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  ideas  of  convenience  and  ade- 
quateness.  In  fact,  the  wiring  diagrams  were 
those  shown  in  this  chapter,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  minor  details.  In  going  over  the 
plans  with  an  electrical  contractor-dealer  the 


132  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

latter  suggested  the  elimination  of  an  outlet  or 
switch  here  and  there,  until  a  total  of  ten  had 
been  recommended  for  elimination.  When  the 
contractor  had  finished  his  consideration  of  the 
plans,  the  householder  asked  why  a  contractor 
should  assume  an  attitude  which  appeared  to 
operate  to  his  disadvantage.  He  replied  to  the 
effect  that  he  always  had  the  interests  of  his 
client  in  mind.  But  did  he?  He  was  unknow- 
ingly placing  a  blight  upon  that  home,  but  then, 
the  electrical  contractor  has  not  learned  what 
an  important  link  he  is  in  the  chain  which  leads 
to  a  pleasant  home.  The  householder,  who 
knew  that  the  cost  of  outlets  was  insignificantly 
small,  compared  with  their  importance,  insisted 
that  the  elimination  of  these  outlets  at  a  saving 
of  a  few  dollars  was  not  to  his  advantage.  In 
fact,  he  correctly  stated  that  such  a  procedure 
really  resulted  in  an  inhibition  of  the  possibili- 
ties of  lighting  in  that  home  which  would  re- 
main as  long -as  the  house  existed.  Further- 
more, in  a  few  months  the  house  would  be 
completed  and  the  contractor-dealer  would  then 
attempt  to  sell  the  householder  various  electri- 
cal devices,  such  as  a  heater,  a  toaster,  a  flat- 
iron,  a  vacuum  cleaner,  portable  lamps,  etc., 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING         133 

each  of  which  demands  a  convenient  baseboard- 
or  wall-receptacle  to  connect  it. 

All  efforts  of  others  toward  progress  in  resi- 
dence lighting  will  be  reduced  in  effectiveness 
as  long  as  electrical  contractors  do  not  appre- 
ciate the  value  of  adequate  wiring  and  recom- 
mend it.  This  does  not  mean  that  other  in- 
terests are  on  the  side  of  progress,  as  opposed 
to  the  contractor.  Indeed,  few  of  those  who 
come  in  contact  with  the  householder  are  placing 
sufficient  emphasis  upon  the  importance  of  light- 
ing effects  and  the  insignificant  cost  of  light- 
ing. The  central  station  should  show  that  light- 
ing is  not  costly  and  should  emphasize  that  it 
should  not  be  viewed  from  the  same  attitude  as 
the  householder  maintains  toward  fuel  and  food. 
The  architect  and  builder  must  be  reached,  for 
they  are  often  in  the  best  position  to  recommend 
adequate  wiring  and  to  show  the  advantages  of 
lighting.  In  fact,  they  can  easily  show  that  a 
few  baseboard  outlets  will  bring  greater  re- 
turns in  the  sale  of  a  house  than  any  invest- 
ment of  equally  insignificant  magnitude.  The 
fixture-dealer  is  generally  consulted  about  fix- 
tures after  the  wiring  is  completed,  but  if  he 
had  a  demonstration-room,  the  householder  in 


134  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

due  time  would  acquire  the  habit  of  visiting  the 
lighting  artist  for  advice  concerning  wiring. 
It  has  been  found  that  this  would  be  true  if  the 
fixture-dealer  let  it  be  known  that  he  had  ex- 
perts for  that  purpose.  But  there  are  so  many 
interests  which  come  in  contact  with  the  house- 
holder, some  of  them  at  an  inopportune  time  in 
the  course  of  the  construction  of  the  home,  that 
the  best  plan  appears  to  be  for  the  householder 
to  become  familiar  with  the  possibilities  and 
importance  of  lighting.  Some  companies  en- 
gaged in  lighting  or  in  the  sale  of  lighting  ac- 
cessories have  attempted  to  inform  the  house- 
holder in  regard  to  this  new  era  of  lighting, 
but  in  general  they  have  not  taken  up  the  mat- 
ter of  lighting  effects  in  the  broader  manner 
which  awakens  the  interest  of  the  householder 
and  secures  his  enthusiastic  support. 

Let  us  take  up  the  wiring  of  a  middle-class 
home  which  was  built  three  years  ago.  Suffi- 
cient time  has  elapsed  to  establish  a  justification 
of  the  various  outlets  and  controls  and  to  make 
it  possible  to  appraise  the  wiring  plans.  An  in- 
spection of  the  accompanying  diagrams  will  re- 
veal an  adequacy  of  outlets  and  switches  seldom 
approached  and  rarely  equalled  in  a  middle- 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING         135 


class  home  of  similar  size,  but  it  may  be  stated 
that  the  existence  of  each  outlet  and  switch  has 
been  justified.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that 
none  of  these  would  be  dispensed  with  for  much 
more  than  their  cost  of  installation  during  con- 
struction. 

Beginning  with  the  first-floor  plan   (Figure 
21),  let  us  analyze  the  living-room.    No  ceiling- 


CH  BASEBOARD  OVTUET 

fiooa  OUTLET 
»-  WAU.SWITCM 


FIG.  21 — Adequate  wiring  of  the  first  floor  of  a  middle-class  house 


136  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

fixtures  have  been  installed,  but  a  two-circuit 
outlet  was  provided  for  possible  future  de- 
mands. Switches  control  these  two  circuits  re- 
spectively at  the  main  entrance  and  at  the  stair- 
way, as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  However, 
not  intending  to  install  a  ceiling-fixture,  the 
baseboard  outlet  at  the  front  end  of  the  room 
is  attached  to  a  switch  at  the  front  entrance. 
In  order  to  have  artificial  light  on  entering  from 
the  stairway  at  the  opposite  end,  the  pair  of 
brackets  which  flank  the  mantel  is  connected 
with  a  switch  at  the  stairway  entrance.  The 
arangement  of  the  furniture,  such  as  piano, 
library-table  and  davenport,  was  carefully 
studied  before  deciding  upon  the  locations  of 
the  outlets,  the  switches,  etc.  A  table-lamp  is 
provided  for  at  the  front  end.  In  the  corner 
on  the  left  is  an  outlet  to  which  is  attached  elec- 
trical equipment  (including  a  small  lamp)  of  a 
modern  phonograph.  On  the  mantel  is  an  out- 
let for  decorative  candlesticks,  and  at  the  left 
is  another  outlet  for  a  "  beauty-spot "  of  light. 
The  remaining  baseboard  outlets  are  utilized 
respectively  for  a  floor-lamp  near  the  piano  (on 
the  wall  at  the  right),  for  a  floor-lamp  at  one 
end  of  the  settee  (on  the  left-center  of  the  room 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING          137 

ordinarily),  and  for  a  miniature  floor-lamp  at 
the  other  end.  The  latter  may  be  moved  close 
to  a  chair  and  thus  serve  as  a  portable  reading- 
lamp.  Every  outlet  is  in  use  in  this  room,  and 
some  of  them  do  double  duty. 

In  the  dining-room  a  two-circuit  outlet  is 
found  in  the  center  of  the  ceiling.  This  sup- 
plies a  fixture  which  throws  a  well-controlled 
downward  component  of  light  that  illuminates 
the  table  predominantly  and  an  upward  com- 
ponent for  moderate  general  illumination.  An 
outlet  in  the  floor  under  the  table  may  be  used 
for  electrical  devices  on  the  table.  One  of  the 
baseboard  outlets  supplies  a  pair  of  candle- 
sticks on  the  buffet;  the  others  are  used  for 
electrical  apparatus  and  are  also  available  for 
any  special  lighting  purpose. 

In  the  kitchen  an  electrical  outlet  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  ceiling  is  controlled  by  a  wall-switch 
conveniently  located.  The  combination-fixture 
is  a  wall-bracket  at  the  left,  near  the  stove.  An- 
other bracket  with  a  pendent  shade  is  placed 
over  the  sink,  and  a  wall-receptacle  is  provided 
for  electrical  devices.  If  windows  do  not  per- 
mit the  use  of  a  bracket,  the  fixture  over  the 
sink  can  be  suspended  from  the  ceiling.  In  the 


138 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


rear  hall  and  on  the  rear  porch  are  ceiling  pris- 
matic balls  controlled  by  switches,  as  shown. 
At  the  front  entrance  is  a  pendent  lantern  and 
in  the  vestibule  is  a  ceiling-outlet,  both  being 


Fia.  22 — Adequate  wiring  of  the  second  floor  of  a  middle-class  bouse 

controlled  by  switches.  On  the  porch  at  the 
left  is  a  ceiling-fixture  which  consists  of  a  pris- 
matic ball  and  is  controlled  by  a  switch  at  the 
side  entrance.  Ceiling  outlets  are  installed  in 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING          139 

the  stairways,  each  being  controlled  by  a  three- 
way  switch. 

The  wiring  diagram  of  the  second  floor  is 
shown  in  Figure  22.  Here  again  the  best  ar- 
rangements of  furniture  were  determined  be- 
fore the  outlets  were  located.  For  example,  in 
the  front  bedrooms  the  windows  were  located 
in  this  manner,  and  in  each  of  these  twin  beds 
may  be  used,  if  desired,  without  any  interfer- 
ence by  the  windows.  Each  room  is  wired  for 
a  ceiling  outlet  controlled  by  a  switch  at  the 
entrance.  A  baseboard  outlet  is  available  be- 
tween the  beds  at  the  windows  in  the  front  bed- 
rooms. This  serves  as  a  connection  for  a  port- 
able lamp  and  electric  devices.  Two  wall-brack- 
ets are  provided,  one  on  each  side  of  the  dresser, 
and  a  baseboard  outlet  is  installed  for  con- 
necting the  dresser-lamps.  In  case  only  one 
bed  is  used,  the  other  baseboard  outlet  may  be 
used  for  the  dressing-table. 

The  den,  which  in  some  cases  would  be  a  small 
bedroom,  is  supplied  with  two  brackets  and  two 
baseboard  outlets,  and  the  ceiling  is  wired  for 
an  outlet  in  the  center  controlled  by  a  switch 
at  the  door.  All  closets  are  supplied  with  pen- 
dent lamps  and  pull-chain  sockets. 


140  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

The  bathroom  mirror  is  flanked  by  small 
brackets,  as  shown  in  Figure  22,  and  a  wall- 
receptacle  near  the  floor  is  provided  for  con- 
nection of  electrical  devices.  In  the  upper  hall 
is  a  baseboard  outlet  to  which  a  portable  lamp 
may  be  attached  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
a  decorative  touch  to  this  otherwise  unfurnished 
space.  However,  the  possibility  of  using  this 
outlet  for  this  purpose  was  not  sufficiently  evi- 
dent to  justify  its  installation,  but  the  fact  that 
it  affords  a  place  to  connect  a  vacuum  cleaner 
which  can  serve  all  rooms  on  this  floor  without 
being  disconnected  resulted  in  the  installation 
of  this  outlet.  For  the  latter  purpose  this  out- 
let has  well  proved  its  worth.  In  fact,  outlets 
may  often  be  justified  on  the  basis  of  a  dual 
capacity  of  this  character. 

In  the  basement  (Figure  23),  the  wiring  is 
likewise  adequate.  A  switch  near  the  kitchen 
entrance  to  the  stairway  controls  the  lamp 
which  illuminates  the  stairs.  A  switch  at  the 
bottom  of  the  stairs  controls  a  ceiling-lamp  near 
the  heater,  and  this  immediately  supplies 
enough  light  to  make  it  possible  to  distinguish 
any  objects  in  the  basement.  Above  the  laun- 
dry-trays, and  somewhat  to  one  side,  is  a  ceil- 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING 


141 


ing  socket  with  a  pull-cord  snap-switch,  and  on 
the  wall  is  an  outlet  for  connection  of  a  wash- 


Fia.  23 — Adequate  wiring  of  a  basement 

ing-machine,  a  flat-iron,  or  other  electrical  de- 
vice. Over  the  work-bench  is  a  pull-chain 
socket,  and  a  similar  one  is  in  the  toilet.  The 
fuel-bin  and  fruit-closet  each  contain  a  ceiling- 
outlet  controlled  by  an  indicating  switch,  in  each 
case  installed  outside.  These  outlets  are  con- 


142  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

veniences  which  add  much  to  the  satisfaction  of 
a  basement  and  make  most  basements  appear, 
by  comparison,  as  dingy  caves  whose  chief  func- 
tion is  to  produce  bumps  upon  the  head  and 
shins  of  the  invader. 

A  comparison  of  these  wiring  plans  with 
those  of  houses  costing  several  times  as  much 
would  suggest  extravagance  in  this  case,  but  it 
is  confidently  affirmed  that  every  outlet  and 
switch  has  a  right  to  exist.  The  actual  increase 
in  the  cost  of  this  adequate  lighting-plant  is  an 
insignificant  part  of  the  entire  investment. 
The  house  possesses  possibilities  in  lighting 
which  are  always  a  source  of  satisfaction  to  the 
householder.  One  of  the  best  proofs  of  justifi- 
cation is  that  not  an  outlet  or  a  switch  would  be 
given  up  for  several  times  its  cost.  These  wir- 
ing plans  are  considered  adequate,  but  in  no 
sense  are  they  extravagant.  They  represent 
artificial  lighting,  which  ranks  third  in  impor- 
tance in  this  house,  as  it  should.  It  is  super- 
seded in  importance  only  by  the  house,  or  en- 
closure, and  by  the  heating-plant.  By  compar- 
ing these  diagrams  with  the  wiring  of  middle- 
class  homes  in  general,  it  is  evident  to  those  in- 
terested in  bringing  the  possibilities  of  light- 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING         143 

ing  to  the  householder  that  each  must  do  his 
part  if  this  interval  between  prevailing  inade- 
quate wiring  and  reasonably  adequate  wiring  is 
to  be  spanned. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  double  and 
triple  receptacles  can  be  installed  at  any  of  the 
baseboard  outlets,  thus  adding  to  the  conveni- 
ence of  wiring  by  eliminating  the  necessity  of 
detaching  one  device  to  connect  another. 

Adequate  wiring,  such  as  has  been  outlined  in 
the  foregoing,  does  not  necessarily  increase 
operating  cost.  The  slight  increase  in  invest- 
ment is  insignificant  when  considered  in  terms 
of  the  entire  investment  in  the  home  and  of  the 
return  in  convenience  and  pleasure.  This  can 
be  easily  ascertained  by  consulting  an  electrical 
contractor.  Furthermore,  it  has  been  proved 
that  adequate  wiring  of  this  character  is  a  gilt- 
edged  investment  which  pays  excellent  returns 
if  the  house  is  sold.  The  monthly  bills  for  elec- 
tricity in  this  particular  house  have  averaged 
about  two  dollars  a  month — about  seven  cents 
per  day —  the  central-station  rates  being  ten 
cents  per  kilowatt-hour  for  the  first  ten  kilo- 
watt-hours and  five  cents  each  for  the  remain- 
der per  month.  Adequate,  flexible  and  conveni- 


144  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ent  wiring  does  not  necessarily  increase  the 
cost  of  lighting,  except  for  the  slightly  in- 
creased investment. 

Summary 

A  simplified  summary  of  outlets  in  the  house 
described  in  this  chapter  is  presented  for  the 
convenience  of  the  reader.  Those  marked  "un- 
used" were  installed  without  intending  to  use 
them.  They  are  considered  to  be  desirable  in- 
surance to  meet  possible  future  demands.  In 
looking  over  this  summary  the  reader  should 
bear  in  mind  that  these  outlets  are  available  for 
other  electrical  devices  besides  portable  lamps, 
such  as  vacuum-cleaner,  fans,  cooking  ap- 
paratus, and  various  motor-driven  apparatus. 
For  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  term  "receptacle" 
will  mean  baseboard,  wall,  or  floor  outlet  for  de- 
tachable plugs.  Switches  are  assumed  to  be  in 
the  wall,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

Living-room 

Size  14  feet  by  24  feet. 

7  receptacles  for  portable  lamps  and  other 

electrical  devices. 
2  brackets  over  mantel. 
1  two-circuit  ceiling  outlet  (unused). 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING         145 

2  switches    for    ceiling-fixture    placed    re- 

spectively at  front  and  stairway  en- 
trances (unused). 

1  switch  at  stairway  entrance  for  mantel- 
brackets. 

1  switch  at  front  entrance  for  portable 
lamp. 

1  switch  for  ceiling-fixture  in  vestibule. 

1  switch  for  ceiling-fixture  on  porch. 

Vestibule 

1  ceiling-fixture. 

1  switch  for  lantern  at  entrance. 

Entrances 

1  ceiling-fixture  on  rear  porch. 
1  ceiling-fixture  on  side  porch. 
1  lantern  at  front  entrance. 

Dining-room 

1  two-circuit  ceiling-fixture  (three  circuits 
provide  greater  possibilities). 

3  receptacles  in  baseboards  for  candlesticks 

on  buffet  and  other  electrical  devices. 

1  floor-receptacle  wired  to  double  or  triple 

socket  underneath  table  at  convenient 
location. 

2  switches  for  ceiling-fixture. 


146  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

Kitchen 

1  ceiling-fixture. 

1  combination-bracket  near  range. 

1  bracket  over  sink. 

1  receptacle  for  electrical  devices. 

1  switch  for  ceiling-fixture. 

1  switch  for  fixture  in  basement  stairway. 

1  switch  for  ceiling-fixture  in  rear  hall. 
Rear  hall 

1  ceiling-fixture  in  rear  hall. 

1  switch  for  ceiling-fixture  on  rear  porch. 
Stairway 

1  ceiling-fixture  on  landing. 

1  three-way  switch  for  this  fixture,  con- 
trolled at  top  and  bottom  of  stairs. 
Upper  hall 

1  ceiling-fixture. 

1  three-way  switch  for  this  fixture,   con- 
trolled at  top  and  bottom  of  stairs. 

1  receptacle  for  portable  lamp  and  espe- 

cially for  vacuum-cleaner. 

Front    bedroom    (duplicate   wiring   for   other 
front  bedroom) 

2  wall-brackets     (individual    switches    on 

these  fixtures  and  light-sources  about 
six  feet  above  floor). 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING         147 

2  receptacles  for  portable  lamps  or  fixtures 

and  for  other  electrical  devices. 
1  ceiling-fixture. 
1  switch  for  ceiling-fixture. 
Upper  porch 

1  bracket,  controlled  by  switch  in  adjacent 

room. 
Den 

2  receptacles. 

2  brackets  (may  be  eliminated  if  ceiling- 
fixture  and  portable  lamps  meet  the 
desires). 

1  ceiling-fixture  (unused). 

1  switch  for  ceiling-fixture  (unused). 
Closet  (duplicate  wiring  in  other  two  closets) 

1  pendent  pull-chain  socket. 
Bathroom 

2  brackets  with  pull-chain  sockets.     (One 

on  each  side  of  mirror  and  light- 
sources  at  height  of  about  65  inches 
above  floor). 

1  receptacle  for  electrical  devices. 
Third  floor 

Switch  at  door  on  second  floor  controls  fix- 
ture on  third  floor  which  illuminates 
stairway. 


148  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

On  the  landing  is  an  entrance  to  storage 
space  containing  pendent  socket. 

Each  of  two  rooms  on  third  floor  provided 
with  ceiling  outlet  and  baseboard  re- 
ceptacle. 
Basement 

1  ceiling-fixture  at  bottom  of  stairs. 

1  ceiling-fixture  in  center  of  basement  near 
heater. 

1  switch  at  bottom  of  stairs  controlling  this 
fixture. 

1  ceiling-fixture     (angle     reflector)     over 
laundry-trays. 

1  pull-cord  snap-switch  on  ceiling  control- 
ling this  fixture. 

1  wall-receptacle    near   laundry-trays    for 
electrical  devices. 

1  pendent     socket      (with     self-contained 
switch)  over  work -bench. 

1  pendent  pull-chain  socket  in  toilet. 

1  pendent  socket  in  fruit-closet. 

1  indicating  switch  outside  fruit-closet. 

1  pendent  socket  in  fuel-bin. 

1  indicating  switch  outside  fuel-bin. 
Garage 

1  ceiling-fixture. 


PLANNING  THE  WIRING         149 

1  switch   at   entrance   controlling   ceiling- 

fixture. 

2  wall-receptacles. 

(It  is  convenient  to  have  master-switch 
for  garage  installed  in  basement  near 
meter  or  at  any  satisfactory  location. 
This  is  sometimes  a  safety  meas- 
ure and  also  affords  convenient  con- 
trol of  heater,  charging  apparatus, 
etc.) 
Signal-circuits 

Although  ordinarily  this  does  not  have 
anything  to  do  with  lighting,  miniature 
lamps  may  be  supplied  by  a  bell-ringing 
transformer  for  small  candlesticks,  an 
"  illuminated  house-number, "  etc.  Of 
course,  signal-bells  or  buzzers  are  provided 
for  operation  from  front  and  rear  entrances 
and  from  the  dining-table,  the  signal  de- 
vices being  installed  at  the  desired  loca- 
tions. The  kitchen  is  the  usual  place  for 
these  signals,  although  two  signals  may  be 
operated  by  the  push-button  at  the  front 
entrance,  one  of  these  being  installed  in  the 
kitchen  and  the  other  in  the  vestibule  or 
in  any  location  considered  more  desirable. 


150  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

Wiring  for  telephones,  heat  regulators, 
etc.,  can  be  more  conveniently  done  during 
construction  than  after  the  house  is  built. 


X 

PORTABLE  LIGHTING  " FURNITURE" 

IN  the  foregoing  chapters  considerable  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  portable  lamps,  for 
they  have  several  advantages  over  other  light- 
ing accessories.  They  are  excellent  furnish- 
ings, and  utility  may  be  a  by-product  if  desired, 
but  from  the  standpoint  of  practicability  in 
lighting,  their  mobility  makes  them  supreme. 
There  is  a  vast  variety  of  portable  lamps  avail- 
able at  the  present  time,  but  with  the  exception 
of  a  few,  they  have  not  been  designed  with  the 
greater  possibilities  of  light-control  in  mind. 
If  careful  attention  is  given  to  the  requirements 
of  lighting  in  various  rooms  and  upon  various 
occasions  in  the  design  of  portable  lamps,  they 
may  be  developed  to  meet  nearly  all  these  re- 
quirements in  the  home.  The  householder  is 
not  skilled  in  the  appraisal  of  portable  lamps  as 
to  their  ability  to  meet  the  needs  of  pure  utility 
as  well  as  of  decorative  value.  The  former  can 
be  ascertained  by  testing  the  lamps  in  the  store 

151 


152  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

in  the  same  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  used 
in  the  home.  For  example,  if  a  floor-lamp  is  to 
illuminate  the  piano,  it  does  not  take  much 
imagination  to  ascertain  the  effectiveness  for 
this  purpose  of  any  lamp  at  the  fixture-store. 
If  a  decorative  table-lamp  is  to  serve  also  as  the 
principal  reading-lamp  on  the  library-table,  the 
prospective  purchaser  can  ascertain  its  effec- 
tiveness by  seating  himself  near  it.  In  fact,  the 
salesman  will  do  well  to  demonstrate  such  fea- 
tures as  the  distribution  of  light.1 

The  fixture-designer,  and  even  the  house- 
holder, should  experiment  with  sockets  and 
metal  and  glass  shades  as  inner  equipment  to 
be  shielded  by  a  textile,  art-glass,  or  metal 
shade.  An  indirect  or  upward  component  is 
easily  obtained,  and  a  portable  lamp  possessing 
this  additional  component  is  valuable  in  many 
places  in  the  home.  (See  Figures  10  and  19) 
Such  a  lamp  would  be  in  great  demand  if 
demonstrated  and  properly  presented.  There 
appears  to  be  no  better  field  for  development 
of  fixtures  than  that  of  portable  lamps. 

On  inspecting  a  display  of  portable  lamps,  it 
is  obvious  that  many  of  them  are  carelessly  de- 

i  "The  Lighting  Art,"  by  M.  Luckiesh,  p.  122. 


LIGHTING  "FURNITURE"         153 

signed  from  the  standpoint  of  pure  utility. 
The  light-sources  are  often  visible,  when  they 
should  be  concealed  by  the  shade.  The  reme- 
dies are  so  simple  that  it  appears  strange  that 
they  are  not  applied.  A  lowering  of  the  shade, 
a  shortening  of  the  pedestal,  the  addition  of  a 
heavy  fringe,  or  the  use  of  frosted  lamps  some- 
times achieves  much  toward  satisfactoriness. 
Often  the  silk  shade  has  a  dark  inner  lining, 
which  not  only  uselessly  decreases  the  efficiency 
of  the  lamp  for  reading  purposes,  but  produces 
a  glaring  condition,  for  light-sources  against  a 
dark  background  are  more  glaring  than  when 
viewed  against  a  light  background.  Of  course 
the  light-sources  should  not  be  visible,  but  it  is 
not  always  possible  to  keep  them  out  of  the 
field  of  vision  all  the  time.  A  white  or  cream- 
tinted  lining  is  usually  satisfactory.  In  making 
textile  shades,  care  should  be  taken  to  use  a 
sufficient  number  of  fabrics  to  make  the  lamp 
invisible  through  the  combination  and  to  com- 
bine colors  in  such  a  manner  that  by  transmitted 
light  the  shade  has  the  desired  appearance. 

A  few  of  the  simple  defects  of  portables 
which  may  be  easily  detected  and  corrected  are 
illustrated  diagrammatically.  In  these  dia- 


154 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


grams  the  normal  level  of  the  eyes  during  read- 
ing is  shown  by  the  dashed  line  and  the  asterisk 
indicates  the  approximate  position  of  the  eyes. 
A  full  line  is  drawn  from  the  light- source 
through  the  boundary  of  the  aperture  of  the 
shade  to  indicate  the  upper  limit  of  the  direct 


FIG.  24 — Illustrating  the  effect  of  the  height  of  the  pedestal  of  a 
portable  lamp,  other  dimensions  remaining  constant 

light  in  each  case.  In  Figure  24  the  effect  of 
the  height  of  the  pedestal  is  shown.  When  this 
is  too  high,  the  light-source  is  visible  unless  the 
reader  removes  himself  to  a  greater  distance. 
This  results  in  a  decreased  illumination  on  the 
reading-page.  Figure  25  shows  a  similar  de- 
fect, which  is  commonly  found  in  portables  hav- 
ing a  pedestal  too  high  or  a  shade  too  shallow. 


LIGHTING  "FURNITURE"        155 


Fia.  25 — Illustrating  the  undesirability  of  a  high  pedestal  combined 
with  a  very  shallow  shade 

A  common  result  obtainable  with  two  light- 
sources  in  a  shade  is  shown  in  Figure  26.  One 
of  the  light-sources  is  properly  shaded,  but  the 


Fia.  26 — Illustrating  a  common  difficulty  arising  from  two  light-sources 
in  a  shade 

other  is  not.    When  the  shade  is  too  narrow  or 
too  contracted,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "mush- 


156  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

room7'  type,  the  spread  of  direct  light  may  be 
too  much  curtailed,  as  shown  in  Figure  27. 
This  is  true  when  the  light-source  is  too  high  in 
the  shade.  When  the  position  is  somewhat 


FIG.  27 — Illustrating  the  effect  of  the  height  of  the  light-source  in 
the  shade,  the  other  dimensions  remaining  constant 

lower,  the  portable  is  satisfactory  from  a  purely 
utilitarian  point  of  view.  These  illustrate  some 
of  the  common  defects  for  which  the  remedies 
are  obvious. 

In  the  living-room  portable  lamps  can  be  so 
designed  and  combined  as  to  meet  all  the  light- 
ing requirements.  This  method  of  lighting  the 
living-room  is  recommended  without  reserva- 
tion, except  to  insist  upon  a  means  for  obtain- 
ing sufficient  general  illumination  when  occasion 
demands  it.  Instead  of  the  brackets  at  the 
mantel,  small  portable  lamps  simulating  candle- 
sticks are  satisfactory.  Three  heights  of  floor- 


LIGHTING  "FURNITURE"        157 

lamps  are  useful.  Although  the  heights  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  shape  of  the  shades,  the  tall- 
est, containing  a  device  for  obtaining  a  powerful 
upward  component,  should  not  be  less  than 
sixty-five  inches,  but  in  rooms  with  high  ceilings 
it  may  be  higher,  as  shown  in  Figure  28.  The 
ordinary  floor-lamp  which  supplies  only  a  direct 
component  is  about  sixty  inches  in  height 
(Figure  29).  A  miniature  floor-lamp  fifty 
inches  in  height  (Figure  30)  will  be  found  use- 
ful as  a  portable  reading-lamp.  With  a  special 
shallow  shade,  its  total  height  may  be  about 
forty-six  inches.  It  is  a  decorative  article  de- 
void of  the  mechanical  appearance  of  the  ordin- 
ary floor-lamp  which  is  moved  about  for  read- 
ing or  similar  purposes.  Earely  is  such  a  small 
floor-lamp  seen,  but  it  combines  utility  and 
beauty  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner. 

The  table-lamps,  of  course,  vary  considerably 
in  height,  depending  upon  their  function.  They 
should  give  a  reasonable  spread  of  light  if  they 
are  to  be  used  for  reading  purposes,  but  this 
feature  can  and  should  be  demonstrated.  A 
table-lamp  giving  both  direct  and  indirect  com- 
ponents is  quite  practicable,  and  although  it 
may  be  desirable  that  the  top  of  the  shade  be 


23 U  M  JLH9/3H 

158 


LIGHTING  "FUBNITURE"        159 

as  high  as  in  the  case  of  Figure  28,  practical 
considerations  often  call  for  a  compromise.  An 
ordinary  table  is  about  thirty  inches  in  height, 
as  illustrated  in  Figure  31.  A  reading-lamp  to 
be  satisfactory  must  emit  a  reasonable  spread 
of  light,  as  shown  in  Figure  32 ;  that  is,  the  angle 
drawn  from  the  light-source  to  the  edge  of  the 
aperture  should  make  an  angle  of  at  least  forty- 
five  degrees  with  the  axis  of  the  pedestal.  The 
fringes  of  the  silk  shades  may  be  backed  by  the 
fabric  of  the  shade,  thereby  shading  the  light- 
source  effectively  if  desired.  There  is  no  rea- 
son why  portable  lamps  should  not  be  as  numer- 
ous as  pictures  in  a  living-room.  In  fact,  such 
a  room  (14  feet  by  24  feet)  can  take  care  of 
eight  or  ten  portables,  including  one  on  the 
library -table,  two  floor-lamps,  a  miniature  floor- 
lamp for  reading  purposes,  two  small  ones  on 
the  mantel,  a  small  decorative  lamp  on  the  book- 
case, a  medium-sized  one  on  a  desk  or  small 
stand,  and  one  or  two  very  small  decorative 
lamps  on  the  piano.  These  are  as  ornamental 
as  any  bric-a-brac,  or  as  decorative  as  pictures, 
and  they  may  be  as  useful  as  desired. 

With  the  exception  of  a  central  ceiling-fixture 
of  proper  design,  the  dining-room  can  be  sue- 


160  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

cessfully  lighted  by  means  of  portable  lamps. 
Some  may  even  prefer  short  candlesticks  on  the 
table,  although  these  do  not  appear  to  be  as  sat- 
isfactory as  a  well-designed  ceiling-fixture  for 
lighting  the  table.  Small  portables  on  the 
buffet,  and  possibly  on  other  furniture,  may  en- 
hance the  appearance  of  a  dining-room  if  they 
contain  small  lamps  and  are  very  subdued  in 
brightness. 

The  library,  den,  and  sun-room  can  be  ade- 
quately lighted  by  means  of  portables,  for  their 
requirements  do  not  differ  materially  from 
those  of  the  living-room.  In  fact,  nearly  all  the 
lighting  requirements  of  the  first  floor  of  a  home 
may  be  supplied  by  means  of  portable  lamps. 

In  the  bedrooms  all  requirements  can  be  met 
by  portables.  Two  small  lamps  are  quite  satis- 
factory on  the  dresser  and  dressing-table,  and 
a  small  portable  meets  various  other  needs.  In- 
asmuch as  the  person  using  the  dressing-table 
(which  is  about  twenty-nine  inches  high)  is  usu- 
ally seated,  low  lamps,  as  illustrated  in  Figure 
33,  are  desirable.  The  dresser  is  usually  about 
thirty-five  inches  high,  and  inasmuch  as  the  per- 
son stands  before  it,  the  portables  should  be 
high,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  34;  that  is,  they 


LIGHTING  "FURNITURE"        161 

should  be  comparable  in  height  to  that  of  wall- 
brackets  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  Fix- 
tures may  be  fastened  upon  the  articles  of  fur- 
niture in  the  bedroom  and  connected  to  base- 
board or  wall-receptacles.  Thus  throughout 
the  entire  house,  with  the  exception  of  the  bath- 
room, the  kitchen,  the  basement,  and  the  ceiling- 
fixture  over  the  dining-table,  portable  lamps  can 
supply  the  lighting  requirements.  Even  in 
hallways,  if  space  permits,  the  portable  lamp 
suffices. 

It  is  not  necessarily  recommended  that  this 
extreme  use  of  portable  lamps  be  adopted,  but 
attention  to  the  possibilities  of  this  form  of  mo- 
bile equipment  has  been  attracted  for  a  purpose. 
Lighting  may  express  a  home  so  forcefully  that 
the  householder  should  be  given  every  oppor- 
tunity to  satisfy  his  taste  and  desires.  There  is 
such  a  close  relation  between  lighting  and  fur- 
nishings that  portable  lamps  with  an  adequate 
supply  of  baseboard  outlets  make  it  possible  to 
carry  out  this  relation.  As  the  householder  be- 
comes better  acquainted  with  the  possibilities  of 
lighting  and  more  adept  at  realizing  them,  he 
will  become  more  and  more  insistent  upon  hav- 
ing the  lighting  suitable  to  his  taste  and  to  the 


162  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

furnishings.  He  will  find  this  is  most  easily  ac- 
complished by  means  of  portable  lamps  which 
he  has  chosen  or  has  had  made. 

When  a  householder  moves  to  another  apart- 
ment or  into  a  house  which  he  has  rented  or  pur- 
chased, he  takes  his  furnishings  with  him  into 
empty  rooms.  Doubtless  he  has  insisted  upon 
a  complete  re-decoration  of  the  rooms  to  suit 
his  taste  and  his  furnishings.  Why  should  he 
be  obliged  to  accept  the  lighting  effects  which 
have  been  provided  by  some  one  else?  If  the 
rooms  are  adequately  equipped  with  baseboard 
outlets,  he  need  not  resign  himself  to  the  light- 
ing effects  for  which  he  is  not  responsible  and 
which  do  not  meet  his  desires.  He  moves  his 
lighting  "  furniture "  into  his  new  home  and 
should  be  thoroughly  satisfied  if  he  has  had  the 
decorating  done  to  suit  him.  This  is  a  forceful 
argument  for  the  installation  of  more  baseboard 
outlets  and  for  the  widespread  use  of  portable 
lamps. 

But  why  stop  at  this  point?  Why  not  have 
all  brackets  and  ceiling-fixtures  suspended  upon 
hooks  and  attached  by  means  of  plugs?  This 
part  of  the  mechanism  can  be  covered  with  the 
usual  canopy,  and  the  appearance  of  a  portable 


LIGHTING  " FURNITURE"        163 

"fixture"  need  not  be  different  from  that  of  the 
present  fixture.  Incidentally,  the  term  "fix- 
ture" was  coined  unwittingly,  because  it  doubt- 
less has  had  something  to  do  with  the  deep- 
rooted  attachment  which  antiquated  fixtures  ap- 
pear to  form  for  ceilings  and  walls.  It  appears 
certain  that  more  rapid  progress  would  be  made 
in  residence  lighting  if  brackets  and  ceiling-fix- 
tures were  attached  by  means  of  hooks  and 
plugs  and  therefore  were  easily  removable. 
The  dealer  could  easily  demonstrate  new  fix- 
tures, and  even  the  householder  could  change 
fixtures  without  the  use  of  tape  and  solder. 
The  work  involved  in  changing  a  fixture  would 
be  scarcely  greater  than  that  attending  the  at- 
taching of  a  floor-lamp. 

Thus  all  the  fixtures  in  the  home,  except  those 
which  are  purely  utilitarian  or  unimportant, 
could  be  portable  in  every  sense.  There  appear 
to  be  no  fundamental  objections,  and  there  are 
many  advantages.  Certainly,  the  inadequacy 
of  baseboard  outlets,  the  consequent  scarcity  of 
portable  lamps,  and  the  fixedness  of  fixtures  in- 
hibit the  development  of  residence  lighting  and 
the  householder's  interest  in  lighting.  A  ten- 
fold increase  in  baseboard  outlets  is  one  of  the 


164  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

urgent  needs,  but  besides  these,  there  are  many 
other  improvements  to  be  made  in  lighting  fur- 
niture, in  their  demonstration,  and  in  the  assist- 
ance given  to  the  householder  in  lighting  his 
home. 

The  householder  will  find  it  fascinatingly  in- 
teresting to  select,  apply,  and  even  to  make  port- 
able lamps.  Pedestals  can  be  made  from  vari- 
ous ornamental  objects,  such  as  vases,  statuary 
and  antique  relics.  It  is  easy  to  find  a  wood- 
worker who  will  turn  or  carve  pedestals  from 
wood  according  to  specifications.  In  this  man- 
ner the  mantel,  the  dresser,  or  other  articles  of 
furniture  can  be  supplied  with  ornamental  and 
useful  lamps.  It  is  not  difficult  to  have  frames 
made  for  parchment  and  textile  shades,  and  if 
one  is  impelled  by  a  creative  spirit,  a  great  deal 
of  enjoyment  will  be.  found  in  making  shades. 
In  fact,  such  a  spirit  will  find  much  to  keep  it 
busy  throughout  the  lighting  of  the  home.  In- 
genuity and  industry  have  a  profitable  outlet  in 
devising  portable  lamps. 


XI 

PERIOD   STYLE   IN   LIGHTING   FIXTTJBES 

IN  a  broad  view  of  lighting  the  appearance 
of  the  fixture  is  of  secondary  importance. 
This  does  not  mean  that  artistic  design  or  pe- 
riod style  should  be  neglected,  for  any  element, 
however  insignificant,  must  receive  proper  at- 
tention if  the  final  result  is  to  be  harmonious. 
The  intricacies  of  the  artistic  aspects  of  light- 
ing-fixtures cannot  be  fully  discussed  in  a  few 
pages,  for  the  evolution  of  the  various  styles 
and  their  modifications  and  modulations  leads 
from  the  roots  of  racial  and  national  charac- 
teristics through  the  intricate  branches  formed 
by  the  fluctuations  of  the  fortunes  of  nations. 
Superposed  upon  all  these  are  the  influences  of 
rich  or  powerful  or  creative  individuals,  of  in- 
creasing scientific  knowledge,  of  new  light- 
sources,  and  of  manufacturing  and  commercial 
expediencies.  Indeed,  the  whole  is  a  complex 
web  whose  unravelling  would  lead  far  afield. 
However,  a  view  of  the  high-lights  should  be 

165 


166  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

helpful  to  the  householder.  The  architect  and 
the  decorator  meet  with  no  difficulties  in  this 
field;  in  fact,  we  criticize  their  past  efforts 
chiefly  because  their  attention  has  been  concen- 
trated so  powerfully  upon  period  style,  artis- 
tic design,  and  the  appearance  of  lighting-fix- 
tures that  they  have  not  looked  beyond  them  to 
the  wonders  of  light  as  an  expressive  medium. 
One  of  the  earliest  periods  which  is  repro- 
duced to-day  is  the  Egyptian.  The  oil-lamp 
with  its  open  flame  was  the  lighting  device 
of  early  Egyptian  centuries.  Ancient  tombs, 

early  writings,  and  the 
relics  of  ancient  China, 
of  India,  of  early 
Greece,  and  of  the 
Eoman  Empire  show 
the  oil-lamp  to  have 
been  the  chief  source 
of  light.  Naturally  it 
influenced  the  mechani- 
cal features  of  the  early 

FlQ.  35— Egyptian  ornaments-      fixtures,    but     the     Oma- 
tion    on    a    modern    lighting-fix-  .  , 

ture  mentation   was    always 

national  or  powerfully  individualistic  in  char- 
acter.   In  fixtures  of  this  period  the  shallow 


PEEIOD  STYLE 


167 


FlG.  36 — A  modern  light- 
ing standard  based  on  the 
antique 


oil-lamp  may  be 
a  motif  and  the 
typically  early 
Egyptian  orna- 
mentation will  de- 
note its  period 
style.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  oil-lamp  need  not 
figure  in  the  design,  but 
ornamentation  may  serve 
to  make  the  fixture  of 
Egyptian  style,  as  illus- 
trated in  Figure  35.  Of 
course  the  oil-lamp  may 
also  be  a  ' '  motif "  in  a 
fixture  of  the  classic  Greek 
periods,  but  the  orna- 
mentation will  be  typical 
of  the  days  when  Greece 
was  a  creative  spirit  in 
art. 

It  is  commonly  conceded 
that  several  centuries  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  the  Greeks 
developed  their  decorative 


168  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

art  to  a  perfection  which  has  never  been  ex- 
celled. It  is  a  fundamental  of  much  of  the 
decorative  art  of  later  centuries  and  it  has  in- 
spired artists  of  many  countries  up  to  the 
present  time.  This  early  Greek  period  is  still 
alive,  and  a  " modern "  fixture  in  an  interior 
done  in  Greek  period  style  is  such  a  capital  of- 
fence against  the  laws  of  esthetics  that  it  seems 
unnecessary  to  mention  the  possibility.  Still, 
such  incongruities  are  to  be  found  without  en- 
gaging in  a  strenuous  search.  In  Figure  36  is 
illustrated  a  modern  lighting-fixture  based  upon 
the  antique.  In  the  age  of  classic  Greece  the 
oil-lamp  commonly  rested  upon  such  standards. 

The  Roman  Empire  arose  in  its  might  dur- 
ing the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  lamp  and  torch  were  still  the  chief  devices 
of  lighting,  and  they  became  beautiful  objects 
under  the  influence  of  the  grandeur  of  the  Em- 
pire. The  charming  simplicity  of  Grecian  or- 
nament was  blended  with  Roman  magnificence, 
and  we  find  ornament  during  the  Roman  period 
varied  according  to  the  Grecian  influence. 

Our  liking  for  the  antique  is  reflected  in  the 
modern  lanterns  in  use  to-day  in  halls,  vesti- 
bules and  entrances.  These  may  be  patterned 


PERIOD  STYLE  169 

after  those  of  the  classic  periods,  or  they  may 
be  similar  to  the  old  lanterns  of  iron  carried  by 
watchmen  a  few  centuries  ago.  In  the  former 
case  the  old  oil-lamp  is  equipped  with  a  small 
incandescent  lamp  to  replace  the  wick,  and  in 
the  case  of  the  lantern,  glass  is  substituted  for 
horn  and  the  modern  lamp  has  replaced  the 
tallow  candle  or  smoking  oil-wick.  These  sub- 
stitutes must  be  made  with  care,  or  the  result 
may  be  incongruous. 

Inasmuch  as  ornament  is  an  important  factor 
in  the  artistic  design  of  fixtures,  a  few  remarks 
regarding  its  part  in  design  may  not  be  out  of 
place.  Ornament  is  an  accessory  which  does 
not  exist  apart  from  its  application.  It  is  not 
so  superficial  that  it  can  be  added  to  an  object 
which  is  already  satisfying  in  appearance,  with- 
out decreasing  the  esthetic  standing  of  the  ob- 
ject. Ornament  is  desirable  only  when  indis- 
pensable to  a  harmonious  effect.  It  is  a  child 
of  our  desire  for  beauty,  and  it  achieves  its 
mission  only  when  it  is  appropriate  and  fulfills 
a  definite  purpose.  The  forms  of  ornament 
usually  are  not  naturalistic;  they  are  derived 
more  or  less  from  nature,  but  they  are  gener- 
ally conventionalized  natural  forms.  For  some 


170  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

reason  we  do  not  like  too  much  repetition  of 
natural  forms;  therefore,  inasmuch  as  orna- 
mentation involves  repetition  almost  univer- 
sally, the  forms  must  be  such  as  to  be  untiring 
or  satisfactory  in  this  respect.  Styles  are  pe- 
riods in  the  evolution  of  design,  and  in  the  early 
centuries,  when  these  changed  slowly,  they  bore 
the  names  of  nations.  In  recent  centuries  it  has 
been  common  to  apply  the  name  of  the  reigning 
monarch  to  the  styles  of  design,  if  they  are 
worthy  of  a  name.  Ornamentation  bears  the 
earmarks  of  racial  characteristics,  national 
taste,  the  wealth  of  the  period,  the  patronage 
of  the  rulers,  and  the  creative  power  of  indi- 
viduals. With  the  growth  of  international  in- 
tercourse, boundary  lines  are  becoming  less 
definite,  and  it  appears  probable  that  they  will 
eventually  become  more  obscure.  However, 
there  are  powerful  racial  and  climatic  influences 
which  doubtless  will  always  resist  any  tendency 
toward  Catholicism  in  artistic  design. 

From  the  earliest  periods  the  styles  of  light- 
ing-fixtures have  been  products  of  the  influences 
mentioned  in  the  foregoing  paragraph,  but 
finally  the  tools,  the  materials,  and  the  skill  of 
the  workman  determine  the  merit  of  the  lighting 


PEKIOD  STYLE  171 

equipment    as    objects    of    art.     Furthermore, 
each  new  style  which  was  created  must  have 
been  influenced  by  the  art  which  preceded  it  in 
its  own  country  as  well  as  in  other  countries. 
The  variety  of  materials,  the  excellent  tools,  \ 
and  the  many  types  of  ornamental  design  which  1 
have  withstood  the  test  of  time  make  it  possible   ! 
to  produce  artistic  lighting  equipment  to-day  to    I 
satisfy  the  most  exacting  taste.    Even  the  fix- 
tures for  ordinary  homes  need  not  be  expensive 
to  be  true  to  the  traditions  of  ornamental  de- 
sign.    Nevertheless,  the  market  is  flooded  with 
incongruities    and   even   monstrosities.    Many 
fixtures  to-day  are  assembled,  and  parts  totally 
unrelated  to  each  other  find  themselves  related 
in  the  same  fixture  because  they  happen  to  meet 
the  mechanical  requirements.     To  complete  the 
incongruity,  sometimes  parts  are  adapted  to  the 
fixture  without  regard  to  the  fact  that  the  orna- 
mental design  is  upside  down. 

The  Eomanesque  had  its  rise  in  the  ninth 
century  and  was  fully  developed  in  northern 
Italy  by  the  twelfth  century.  The  lighting-fix- 
tures of  that  time  were  usually  beautifully 
carved  lamps  with  branched  arms  for  candles. 
In  fact,  this  was  about  the  beginning  of  the 


172  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

development  of  pendent  lighting-fixtures.  Ro- 
manesque architecture  is  rarely  produced  at  the 
present  time,  but  this  style  of  ornament  is  used 
to  some  extent. 

Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  Gothic  as  under- 
stood by  pointed  arches,  ribbed  vaulting,  flying 
buttresses,  and  its  typical  carvings.  So  many 
of  the  historic  cathedrals  have  been  of  Gothic 
design  that  we  are  inclined  to  feel  that  this  pe- 
riod style  inspires  reverence  by  its  calm  dignity. 
Surely  there  are  Gothic  masterpieces  in  art 
which  cannot  be  excelled. 

The  Gothic  style  which  developed  between  the 
twelfth  and  seventeenth  centuries  is  full  of 
Christian  symbolism.  At  first  it  was  rather 
crude  and  heavy,  but  later  it  became  highly 
ornate  and  more  delicate.  During  this  period 
the  walls  of  houses  were  wainscoted  and  painted 
and  decorated  with  romantic,  biblical,  and  legen- 
dary subjects.  Raftered  ceilings  were  common. 
The  fixtures  for  these  historic  structures  were 
made  in  the  age  of  candles  and  were  commonly 
lanterns  or  coronae  bearing  candles.  They  were 
wrought  in  the  days  when  workmen  lived  for 
their  art,  as  the  exquisite  workmanship  testi- 
fies. In  Figure  37  a  Gothic  lantern  designed  in 


PERIOD  STYLE 


173 


FIG.  37— A  Gothic  Ian- 
tern  designed  in  the  six- 
teenth century 


the  sixteenth  century  is  il- 
lustrated, and  in  Figure  38 
a  modern  Gothic  fixture  is 
shown.  It  is  sometimes  a 
difficult  problem  to  adapt 
modern  illuminants  to  fix- 
tures upon  which  strict  de- 
mands are  made  by  the 
purity  of  the  architecture 
which  they  are  to  illuminate. 
However,  this  has  been  done 
successfully  in  many  cases, 
but  success  has  been  due  to  a 
close  cooperation  of  science  and  art.  Of  course 
Gothic  fixtures  play  but  a  small  part  in  resi- 
dence lighting.  However, 
the  Gothic  influence  is  to  be 
found  in  many  modern  fix- 
tures suitable  for  use  in  the 
home. 

The  Italian  Renaissance, 
which  followed  the  Roman- 
esque and  Gothic,  is  the 
most  elaborate  of  the 
classic  styles.  It  added  to 
the  old  Roman  much  delicate  and  elaborate 


FIG.    38 — A   Gothic   fixture 
of  modern   design 


174  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ornament,  such  as  Arabesque  scrolls,  acanthus 
leaves,  flowers,  ribbons,  fruit,  human  and 
animal  forms  and  conventionalized  designs 
evolved  from  these.  The  Renaissance  applies 
particularly  to  Italy,  but  its  influence  was  felt 
in  other  European  countries. 

In  France  the  finest  Gothic  impulse  began  to 
wane  toward  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  the  national  artistic  mind  was  in  a  condition 
to  be  influenced  by  the  innovations  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies. During  these  centuries  the  French  aris- 
tocracy was  very  rich  and,  according  to  the 
ideas  of  the  period,  was  also  refined  and  culti- 
vated. The  income  of  these  aristocrats  was 
drawn  from  lands  automatically,  so  they  were 
not  in  touch  with  the  realities  of  life  which 
build  well-rounded  rugged  characters.  This 
highly  cultivated  society  gave  its  chief  attention 
to  the  gratification  of  taste  for  beautiful  sur- 
roundings. Henry  IV,  in  1608,  established  a 
factory  for  making  beautiful  furniture  and 
gathered  in  his  palace,  the  Louvre,  many  mas- 
ters of  the  pure  and  applied  arts.  Later,  Louis 
XIV  continued  the  royal  patronage  of  art,  and 
under  such  auspices  it  was  natural  for  the  orna- 


PEEIOD  STYLE 


175 


mentation  to  become  elaborate  and  gorgeous. 
The  artists  and  craftsmen  were  encouraged  to 
produce  extravagant  designs  to  please  the 
vanity  and  jaded  taste  of  the  rich  courts  of 
Louis  XIV  and  Louis  XV. 

The  best  known  of  the  French  styles  are  Louis 
XIV,  Louis  XV,  Louis  XVI,  and  Empire.  They 
are  somewhat  related,  because  they  evolved  suc- 
cessively. During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  the 
decorative  details  were  rich 
to  the  extremity  of  gorgeous- 
ness,  but  they  were  refined 
and  showed  the  influence  of 
classic  origin.  In  Figure  39 
a  crystal  chandelier  of  this 
period  is  illustrated.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign  the 
ornament  began  to  exhibit  the 
influence  of  that  debauch  of 
extravagance  which  culmin- 
ated during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV  in  wanton  and  even  mean- 
ingless ornamentation.  But  this  debauch  wore 
itself  out,  and  the  craftsmen  returned  to  severer 
forms.  However,  the  delicacies  of  the  details 
of  the  previous  period  persisted.  During  the 


FIG.  39 — A  crystal 
chandelier  of  the 
French  Rennaissance 
period 


176  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

reign  of  Louis  XVI  the  styles  displayed  refined 
elegance,  which  finally  approached  the  purely 
classic  following  the  Revolution  and  the  f ounda- 


PlG.    40 — A    modern    "shower"    of    elaborate    treatment,    after    the 
French  Rennaissance 

tion  of  the  Empire.  But  with  the  passing  of 
these  extravagant  monarchs  who  did  so  much 
toward  the  development  of  art,  the  national  and 


PERIOD  STYLE  177 

personal  influence  largely  disappeared.  A 
modern  "shower"  of  elaborate  treatment  after 
the  French  Renaissance  is  illustrated  in  fig- 
ure 40. 

During  these  centuries  the  candle  was  the  pre- 
vailing source  of  light,  and  elaborate  fixtures 
were  designed  for  them.  The  candle  is  so  com- 
pletely associated  with  the  fixtures  of  these 
French  periods  that  the  designer  of  to-day  must 
exercise  his  ingenuity  to  adapt  them  to  modern 
light-sources.  However,  the  candle  has  been 
fairly  well  counterfeited  by  miniature  incandes- 
cent lamps  with  appropriate  bulbs,  especially 
when  the  light  is  subdued  by  a  warm  yellow 
tinting. 

The  modern  crystal  fixture,  which  is  inher- 
ted  from  the  French  periods,  can  scarcely  be  true 
to  its  style  unless  small  light-sources  are  used. 
Where  they  are  hung  low  they  are  usually  glar- 
ing with  modern  light-sources,  and  therefore 
should  not  be  used  if  the  artistic  demands  can 
be  satisfied  by  another  design.  In  fact,  lighting 
is  sufficiently  important  at  the  present  time  to 
be  an  influence  upon  the  choice  of  period  style 
for  an  interior.  Certainly,  if  slavishness  to  by- 
gone art  is  practiced  at  the  cost  of  glaring  fix- 


178  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

lures  and  visual  discomfort,  we  are,  indeed, 
lacking  in  creative  ability. 


FIQ.  41 — A  graceful  Empire  fixture  showing  a  modern  adaptation  of 
the  candelabra 

The  severity  of  design  which  began  to  appear 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI  de- 
veloped finally  into  a  return  to  the  classic,  which 
resulted  in  what  is  now  known  as  the  Empire 


PERIOD  STYLE  179 

period  style.  A  modern  Empire  candelabra  is 
illustrated  in  Figure  41.  This  style  was 
founded  upon  early  Greek  and  Eoman  designs. 
At  first  classicism  was  carried  to  extremes. 
The  details  apparently  were  influenced  by  the 
preceding  Italian  wars  and  the  expedition  to 
Egypt.  Among  them  were  helmeted  heads, 
mouldings  representing  Eoman  faces  (from 
which  the  present  "reed  and  ribbon "  evolved), 
and  winged  figures  symbolizing  victory.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  since  the  fall  of  the 
Empire  France  has  not  developed  any  new 
styles,  if  we  may  except  for  the  present  the  art 
nouveau  which  began  to  be  developed  recently. 
Conditions  of  life  in  the  Netherlands  were 
quite  opposed  to  those  in  neighboring  France. 
The  Dutchman  was  stolidly  struggling  for  a 
living  against  formidable  odds.  He  reclaimed 
land  from  the  sea  and  held  it  at  the  cost  of 
eternal  effort.  The  people  were  diligent  work- 
ers and  enterprising  in  business  and  manufac- 
ture. There  was  no  gilded  aristocracy  or  gay 
court,  as  in  France.  There  were  rich  persons, 
but  they  earned  their  wealth  in  contact  with  the 
realities  of  life.  The  Dutch  and  Flemish  paint- 
ers painted  these  realities,  and  craftsmen  were 


180 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


guided  by  national  instinct  and  character.  The 
gay  court  of  the  king  of  France  naturally  at- 
tracted the  finest  and  most  imaginative  artists 
and  craftsmen,  but  the  work  of  the  Dutch  de- 
signers who  remained  at  home  bears  the  impress 
of  homeliness,  practicability,  simplicity,  and  hu- 
man interest. 

In  England  the  Elizabethan  period  style, 
which  arose  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  reflects  the  Italian  spirit.  During  this 
era  panelled  rooms  and  stuccoed  ceilings  pre- 
vailed. Oak  was  commonly  used  for  the  wood- 
work, and  in  the  better 
houses  painted  linens  and 
hangings,  tapestries  and 
embroideries  hung  on  the 
walls.  A  modern  adapta- 
tion of  the  Elizabethan 
period  is  illustrated  in  Fig- 
ure 42.  During  the  eight- 
eenth  and  nineteenth  cen- 
turies French  influence  in  design  was  very 
powerful,  but  the  period  was  also  blessed  with 
creative  designers,  and  the  Georgian  period, 
which  includes  the  individualistic  work  of  the 
Adam  brothers,  Hepplewhite,  Sheraton,  and 


PERIOD  STYLE 


181 


Chippendale,  became  the 
most  interesting  period  of 
English  design.  A  modern 
fixture  of  the  Georgian 
period  is  illustrated  in  Fig- 
ure 43.  E.  and  J.  Adam, 
architects  and  designers, 
developed  during  the  reigns 
of  George  II  and  George 

III    a    Style    founded    Upon  FIG.   43— A   modern  fix- 

ture of  the  Georgian  period 

classic  lines  which  is  popu-  style 
lar  in  fixture  design  at  the  present  time.  Dur- 
ing their  time  excavations  of  the  Pompeii  ruins 
were  bringing  to  light  many  excellent  examples 
of  the  luxurious  decorative  art  of  the  days  of 
Pompeii.  The  Adam  brothers  sensed  the  beau- 
tiful spirit  of  antiquity  and  transfused  it  with 
variety  and  novelty  through  their  works.  Two 
wall-brackets  designed  by  them  are  illustrated 
in  Figure  44.  The  principle  motifs  of  the  Adam 
style  in  the  Georgian  period  are  rosettes  and 
medallions,  delicate  wreaths,  classical  mould- 
ings, and  festoons  consisting  of  flower-like  husks 
with  conventionalized  bows  of  ribbon.  Many 
exquisite  examples  of  candelabra,  sconces  and 
brackets  designed  by  the  Adam  brothers  are  still 


182  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


Fia.  44 — Two  wall-brackets  designed  by  the  Adam  brothers 

the  inspiration  of  fixture  designers.  A  modern 
wall-bracket  of  Adam  style  is  illustrated  in  Fig- 
ure 45  and  the  ornamentation  of  this  style,  as 
applied  to  modern  glassware,  is  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 46.  Difficulties  arise  in  adapting  the  mod- 
ern lamps  and  sockets  to  the  delicate  and  grace- 
ful fixtures  of  the  Adam  style,  but  ingenuity  has 
produced  some  worthy  results.  Designers  of 
all  periods  doubtless  have  had  to  meet  new  prob- 
lems, but  despite  the  difficulties,  various  artistic 
styles  have  been  developed.  There  are  limita- 
tions imposed  by  the  size  of  the  rooms  and  the 


PERIOD  STYLE 


183 


relatively  small  use  of  ornamentation  and  pe- 
riod style  in  the  architecture  and  decorations 


FIG.  45 — A  modern  wall-bracket  of  Adam  style 

of  the  modest  home.  A  fixture,  under  these 
conditions,  must  be  relatively  simple,  and  in  the 
Adam  style  we  find  embellishment  which  is  pe- 
culiarly unobtrusive. 

Our  own  Colonial  style  was  influenced  by 
European  period  styles.  The  colonists  fur- 
nished their  homes  writh  many  things  brought 


184 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


from  across  the  Atlantic.     In  New  England  and 
Virginia  the  English  styles  were  chiefly  used, 


PlQ.  46 — An  application  of  Adam  ornamentation  to  the  glass  shades 
of  a  wall-bracket  of  simple  design 

and  the  influence  of  the  Georgian  is  evident. 
In  fact,  our  Colonial  art  was  perhaps  often 
Georgian,  modified  by  transplanting  it  into  a 
new  country  where  somewhat  different  condi- 
tions prevailed.  New  York  or  New  Amster- 
dam, being  settled  by  the  Dutch,  developed  a 
colonial  style  after  the  designs  prevalent  in 
Holland.  In  Louisiana  the  early  colonial  de- 
signs were  transplanted  Louis  and  Empire 
styles.  From  these  various  influences  and 
sources  we  developed  our  Colonial  style.  The 
influence  of  the  oil-lamp  with  its  chimney, 


PLATE  IV 


a.     The    downward    component    from    a   special    portable 
produces  a  cozy  effect  even  in  large  rooms. 


6.  An  upward  component  added  to  the  foregoing  provides 
general  lighting.     See  Figure  10. 


PLATE  V 


a.  A  modern  dome  is  excellent  for  the  dining-room.     See 
Figure  16. 


b.  A  kitchen  requires  light  everywhere  and  an  "indirect" 
fixture  provides  such  lighting.  Brackets  such  as  the  one  over 
the  sink  should  be  equipped  with  shades  or  diffusing  media. 


PERIOD  STYLE  185 

which  appeared  during  the  colonial  days,  is  seen 
in  the  fixtures.  A  modern  Colonial  bracket  is 
illustrated  in  Figure  47.  This  harmonizes  well 


Fia.  47 — A  colonial  fixture 

with  the  white  woodwork  so  popular  during 
those  early  colonial  days.  It  is  somewhat  amus- 
ing to  see  some  of  the  colonial  fixtures  of  the 
present  time,  with  shades  pendent  instead  of  up- 
right, bowing  to  the  requirements  of  modern 
lamps  and  lighting. 

In  recent  years  Part  nouveau,  a  modern  style, 
arose  in  Europe  to  meet  the  new  conditions  im- 
posed by  electric-lighting.  In  order  to  adapt 
modern  lamps  to  fixtures  designed  after  the 
styles  of  the  days  of  candles  and  early  oil- 


186  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

lamps,  it  has  been  necessary  to  conceal  wires, 
disguise  sockets,  and  use  ornamentation  to 
screen  these  modern  accessories.  Although 
these  older  period  styles  are  beautiful,  it  is 
gratifying  to  know  that  new  movements  are 
seething;  that  is,  that  the  creative  spirit  still 
lives.  From  experimenting  which  is  now  in 
progress  it  appears  possible  that  a  new  period 
style,  acceptable  from  the  standpoint  of  art,  may 
evolve.  These  evolutionary  periods  must  arise 
in  artistic  expression  as  well  as  in  other  lines  of 
progress,  if  we  are  really  to  advance.  To  be 
content  with  the  art  of  the  past  and  to  deform 
or  to  degrade  it,  as  is  often  necessary,  by  using 
modern  equipment  in  fixtures  whose  original  de- 
signs were  adapted  to  light-sources  which  have 
been  cast  aside  during  the  march  of  civilization, 
is  to  admit  the  lack  of  creative  ability.  L'art 
nouveau  may  not  survive,  for  it  has  not  won 
a  permanent  place  among  period  styles.  The 
reasons  perhaps  are  not  due  to  lack  of  creative 
ability,  but  to  adverse  conditions  imposed  by  a 
commercial  and  manufacturing  age.  Whether 
or  not  a  modern  period  style  will  rise  to  power 
depends  upon  the  outcome  of  the  struggles  be- 
tween art  and  commercialism  and  between  taste 


PERIOD  STYLE 


187 


and  indifference  on  the 
part  of  the  user  of 
lighting-fixtures.  It  is 
too  early  to  ascertain 
what  is  a  typical  ex- 
ample of  this  new 
movement.  One  of  the 
products  is  illustrated 
in  Figure  48. 

As  we  look  over  a 
display  of  fixtures 
which  are  intended  for 
the  home,  we  are  often 
struck  with  the  mean- 
ingless combination  of 
stock  parts  in  many 
fixtures  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  "  high- 
grade.  "  Such  objects 
cannot  endure.  They 
will  tire  the  house- 
holder eventually, 
when  it  dawns  upon 
him  that  they  are 

,  ., 

meaningless     to     the 

point   of  barbarism.     There   is   an   intangible 


FIG.  48  —  An  example  of  1'art 


188  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

quality  to  artistic  objects  which  outlasts  cen- 
turies. Antiquity  is  often  overrated  in  art; 
that  is,  there  is  an  inclination  to  enthuse  too 
much  over  objects  whose  greatest  claim  to  at- 
tention is  that  they  have  been  caressed  by  the 
hand  of  antiquity.  Nevertheless,  we  cannot 
deny  that  one  test  of  true  art  is  that  it  never 
grows  old  in  the  sense  of  spiritual  decadence. 
It  is  hoped  that  this  brief  outline  will  aid 
the  householder  in  appraising  lighting-fixtures. 
A  few  principles  have  been  interwoven  and  some 
illustrations  have  been  presented.  However,  it 
will  require  much  more  attention  to  the  subject 
before  one  can  be  certain  of  his  judgment  con- 
cerning period  styles.  The  safest  procedure 
for  those  who  are  not  sure  of  their  ground  is 
to  seek  advice  of  an  architect,  a  decorator,  or 
a  reliable  dealer.  On  viewing  fixtures,  let  him 
arouse  his  artistic  sense  to  serve  him  in  analyz- 
ing the  component  parts  of  the  fixture  and  their 
relations  to  each  other  so  that  incongruities 
will  be  brought  to  light.  It  is  well  to  remember 
that  esthetics  and  artistic  design  do  not  neces- 
sarily mean  embellishment,  increased  cost,  and 
a  sacrifice  of  efficiency  and  economy  in  their 
broad  sense.  In  the  displays  of  the  fixture- 


PERIOD  STYLE  189 

dealer  there  are  intermingled  incongruities  and 
gems  of  artistic  design,  and  charming  fixtures 
can  be  obtained  at  no  greater  cost  than  mon- 
strosities and  misfits.  Simplicity  of  design  is 
a  safe  refuge  when  in  doubt  in  the  selection  of 
fixtures.  And  finally,  let  us  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  harmony.  This  is  the  soul  of  the 
artistic  expression  of  an  object,  a  grouping  of 
objects,  and  of  a  setting  as  a  whole.  It  is  the 
true  measure. 


XII 

NOVELTIES   IN   LIGHTING 

ALTHOUGH  lighting-fixtures,  in  the  com- 
mon use  of  the  term,  can  be  purchased  or 
made  to  meet  the  requirements  of  lighting  in 
the  home,  the  architect  or  householder  who 
views  the  possibilities  of  lighting  intimately 
will  be  able  to  devise  unusual  lighting  apparatus 
for  special  conditions.  The  possibilities  of 
novel  effects  are  as  extensive  in  variety  as  the 
details  of  houses  and  the  taste  and  means  of 
householders.  For  this  reason  it  would  be  an 
endless  task  to  cover  the  subject  of  this  chapter 
fully.  However,  it  should  be  helpful  in  meet- 
ing special  conditions  or  in  responding  to  the 
insistence  of  a  creative  spirit  to  read  of  a  num- 
ber of  expedients  which  have  been  utilized  with 
success.  Some  of  these  are  very  practicable 
and  should  find  much  wider  use  in  homes ;  others 
are  of  such  a  special  nature  that  the  descrip- 
tions may  be  useful  chiefly  in  suggesting  solu- 
tions of  different  problems.  Even  in  the  small 

190 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING         191 

house  there  is  room  for  novelties,  but  in  the 
larger  houses  an  ingenious  architect  with  im- 
agination and  a  knowledge  of  the  possibilities 
of  modern  lighting  can  weave  into  the  structure 
various  novel  effects  which  would  always  be  a 
source  of  interest  and  pleasure.  Naturally, 
color  plays  a  conspicuous  part  in  lighting  novel- 
ties, but  the  details  involving  color  are  pre- 
sented in  another  chapter. 

There  is  a  long  span  between  the  common 
fixtures,  such  as  ceiling-fixtures,  wall-brackets 
and  portable  lamps,  and  the  constructed  places 
for  concealed  light-sources,  such  as  cornices  of 
rooms  and  capitals  of  pilasters  and  columns. 
The  latter  are  no  longer  novelties  in  lighting, 
because  many  applications  of  this  type  of  " con- 
cealed "  lighting  have  been  made  in  large  inter- 
iors. However,  little  has  been  done  in  the  home 
in  this  direction,  so  even  cove-lighting  may  be 
considered  novel.  But  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes there  are  many  possibilities.  A  wall- 
plaque  of  glass,  with  designs  etched  or  moulded 
in  low  relief,  is  a  novelty  which  has  some  appli- 
cations, and  there  are  various  other  novelties 
which  are,  in  reality,  special  fixtures. 

As  has  been  suggested  elsewhere,  such  a  room 


192 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


as  the  sun-room,  or  even  a  dining-room  of  an 
appropriate  type,  may  receive  its  secondary 
general  illumination  of  moderate  intensity  from 
wall-boxes.  These  may  be  imitation  flower- 
boxes  from  which  artificial  foliage  protrudes. 
The  lamps  may  be  concealed  in  such  a  box,  as 
illustrated  in  Figure  49,  and  reflectors  may  be 
used  to  distribute  the  light  evenly  upon  the 


FIG.  49 — Imitation  flower-boxes  placed  on  the  wall  six  feet  or  more  above 
the  floor  provide  a  novel  means  for  obtaining  indirect  lighting 

ceiling.  However,  if  it  is  desired  to  have  a  box 
of  the  smallest  possible  dimensions,  the  reflec- 
tors may  be  dispensed  with  and  the  interior  of 
the  box  provided  with  a  white  coating.  White 
paint  which  contains  oil  or  varnish  is  undesir- 
able for  such  purposes,  for  when  in  close  prox- 
imity to  operating  lamps,  it  scorches  and  be- 
comes brown.  A  "water"  white  coating  serves 
well  for  this  purpose,  and  there  are  many  pro- 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING        193 


ducts  of  this  character  available  which  are  im- 
provements upon  the  old-fashioned  "  white- 
wash. "  In  such  a  wall-box  tinted  or  deeply  col- 
ored lamps  may  be  concealed,  and  colored  effects, 
as  described  in  Chapter  XVII,  may  be  readily  ob- 
tained. Such  boxes  are  easily  installed  in 
houses  which  are  already  built  by  providing 
wall-receptacles.  Switches  may  be  placed  on 

the      boxes      and     v  .^  .7 

\  J      I  *l 


FIG.  50 — An  ornamental  urn  in  which 
a  reflector  and  lamp  are  concealed  may 
be  set  upon  a  bookcase  and  thus  pro 
vide  indirect  lighting.  It  is  wired  like  a 
portable  lamp 


the  connections 
can  be  made  to 
the  wall-recepta- 
cles by  means  of 
ordinary  connect- 
ing plugs. 

An  urn,  such  as 
illustrated  in  Fig- 
ure 50,  or  a  large 
vase  can  be  bored  near  the  base  to  insert 
the  necessary  wires,  and  a  lamp  and  reflector 
can  be  installed  very  easily.  If  the  converted 
device  is  placed  upon  a  pedestal  or  article  of 
furniture  so  that  its  upper  aperture  is  about 
six  feet  from  the  floor,  very  satisfactory  indirect 
lighting  is  obtained.  Combination  urns  and 
pedestals,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  51,  are  con- 
venient portables.  For  the  home  a  single  re- 


194  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

Sector  and  lamp  will  usually  be  sufficient,  but 
for  large  rooms  the  urn  may  be  large  enough 
for  several  reflectors.  There  is  a  kind  of  mys- 


Fio.  61 — A  floor  standard  terminating  in  a  bowl  or  urn  at  the  upper 
end  is  sometimes  an  appropriate  indirect-lighting  fixture 

tery  attached  to  the  lighting  obtained  in  this 
manner  which  may  be  utilized  effectively  under 
certain  conditions.  For  the  home  such  indirect 
lighting  is  generally  more  satisfactory  as  a 
secondary  effect  supplementing  direct  lighting 
from  ordinary  portable  lamps  and  other  fix- 
tures. These  devices  afford  excellent  places 
from  which  to  obtain  generally  diffused  tinted 
light  and  also  striking  color-effects  for  special 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING        195 


occasions.  Even  several  small  fixtures  of  this 
character  may  be  used  in  a  large  room.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  portable  objects  in  which  a 
reflector  and  lamp  may  be  concealed.  In  Fig- 
ure 52  there  is  illustrated  a  small  ornamental 
object  devised  to  con- 
ceal a  lamp  and  to 
stand  upon  a  piano, 
mantel  or  bookcase. 

A  modification  of 
the  wall-box  or  the 
smaller  ornament  just 
described  is  illustrated 
in  Figure  53  by  means 
of  internal  and  ex- 
ternal views.  This  de- 
vice contains  a  re- 
flector, and  therefore 
is  fairly  large,  al- 
though it  can  be  made  to  project  only  three 
inches  from  the  wall.  If  it  is  built  as  a 
part  of  the  architectural  design,  there  is  no 
reason  for  not  providing  a  cavity  in  the  wall, 
in  order  to  minimize  its  projection.  These 
can  be  used  in  various  places,  such  as  vestibules 


FIG.  52 — An  ornamental  object 
containing  an  asymmetrical  reflec- 
tor and  a  lamp  (as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines)  can  be  set  upon  the 
y>iano  or  other  object  of  sufficient 
height.  It  is  a  portable  lamp 
which  provides  only  an  indirect 
component 


196 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


and  hallways,  for  primary  lighting.     They  can 
be  used  in  the  sun-room  and  dining-room  for 
secondary  lighting  effects. 
Projections  to  conceal  lamps  for  the  system 


FlO.  53 — A  small  ornamental  projection  for  concealing  a  lamp  and  a 
reflector.  Where  it  is  necessary  that  this  be  small,  the  reflector  can 
be  dispensed  with  and  a  cavity  may  extend  into  the  wall 

known  as  cove-lighting  must  be  a  part  of  the 
architectural  or  decorative  scheme.  In  large 
interiors  such  projections  may  be  large  enough 
to  provide  space  for  reflectors,  but  in  the 
smaller  room  ingenuity  must  be  exercised  to 
make  such  a  device  a  small  projection.  Reflec- 
tors may  be  dispensed  with  and  a  cavity  pro- 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING        197 

vided  in  the  wall.  This  may  be  backed  with 
metal  lath  and  plaster,  and  the  clean  surface  of 
the  plaster  may  be  utilized  as  a  reflecting  sur- 


FIG.  54 — Illustrating  a  cornice  for  concealed  lighting  effects.  The 
cornice  may  be  made  smaller  by  dispensing  with  the  reflector.  On  the 
right  is  illustrated  the  method  of  obtaining  this  concealed  lighting.  In 
a  narrow  dark  vestibule  or  dark  hall  a  charming  effect  may  be  ob- 
tained by  providing  a  glass  skylight  or  a  lattice  along  the  dotted  line 

face.    A  cove  for  concealed  lighting  is  shown  in 
Figure  54. 

Artificial  windows  and  skylights  have  their 
application  in  the  home,  and  a  number  of  these 
have  been  installed.  It  is  easy  to  make  such  a 
window  if  there  happens  to  be  a  window  which 
is  useless  or  undesirable  for  admitting  day- 


198 


LIGHTING  THE  HOME 


light.  The  window-sash  may  be  removed  and 
placed  on  the  extreme  exterior  of  the  frame, 
where  the  storm-sash  is  ordinarily  installed. 
This  may  be  covered  on  the  inside  by  means  of 

I 


Mill 


II   I  I 


II   II   II   II   I 


M 


Fio.  55 — An  artificial  "daylight"  or  "moonlight"  window.     A  decorative 
leaded  glass  may  be  used  instead  of  the  lattice  and  flower  box 

cardboard,  composition-board,  asbestos  board, 
or  any  other  suitable  material.  At  the  extreme 
interior  of  the  frame  a  lattice  or  decorative 
glazed  sash  may  be  installed.  If  the  former  is 
used,  an  artificial  vine  climbing  upward  from 
a  flower-box  may  be  entwined  in  the  lattice. 
Lamps  may  be  installed,  as  shown  in  Figure  55, 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING        199 

and  a  charming  effect  is  available.  If  blue- 
green  lamps  are  used,  moonlight  is  simulated 
with  satisfactory  results.  The  desired  color 
may  be  obtained  by  tinting  the  lamps,  by  using 
colored  glass  over  the  reflectors,  or  by  tinting 
the  background  which  covers  the  inner  side  of 
the  exterior  sash.  If  satisfactory  results  are 
to  be  achieved  by  coloring  the  background,  the 
latter  must  have  a  diffusing  surface  and  the  di- 
rect light  must  be  confined  to  it.  A  uniform 
brightness  of  the  background  may  be  obtained 
by  shading  it  with  a  brush  and  a  suitable  gray 
coloring.  Various  obvious  expedients  will 
occur  to  one  interested  in  such  a  device.  A 
moonlight  window  has  been  used  with  charming 
effect,  and  there  are  no  reasons  based  upon 
esthetics  why  such  devices  or  modifications  of 
them  should  not  be  used. 

A  small  alcove  or  vestibule  isolated  from  day- 
light may  be  provided  with  an  artificial  sky- 
light, or  such  an  expediency  may  be  resorted  to 
deliberately  in  preference  to  ordinary  fixtures. 
A  cove  may  be  built  about  two  feet  from  the 
ceiling,  depending  upon  the  height  available, 
and  the  ceiling  may  be  curved,  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 54.  A  sub-skylight  of  glazed  sash,  or 


200  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

merely  of  lattice,  may  be  installed,  as  indicated 
by  the  dotted  line  in  the  diagram.  Various  de- 
tails may  be  added  to  this  simple  construction. 
In  a  vestibule  where  the  height  is  not  sufficient 
to  permit  a  suspended  fixture,  owing  to  interfer- 
ence from  a  door  when  it  is  opened,  a  small  sky- 
light may  be  installed  flush  or  close  to  the  ceil- 
ing. Behind  this  a  white  box  or  reflector  can  be 
provided  with  suitable  lamps.  Such  devices 
may  be  placed  in  the  ceiling  above  a  window-seat 
or  in  any  appropriate  nook. 

Artificial  skylights  have  been  installed  in  the 
ceilings  of  rooms  in  large  residences.  In  one 
case  a  large  oval  of  diffusing  glass  made  of 
leaded  panels  was  set  in  the  ceiling  of  a  dining- 
room.  Above  this  panel  a  large  number  of 
lamps  were  installed  in  a  recess  specially  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose.  In  this  particular  case, 
red,  green  and  blue  lamps  were  used  in  three 
circuits  respectively.  These  were  controlled  by 
means  of  separate  rheostats  set  in  the  wall  at 
a  convenient  place.  By  varying  the  intensities 
of  the  three  circuits,  various  tints  were  obtained, 
as  described  in  Chapter  XVII.  Of  course  this 
is  an  elaborate  scheme,  but  it  may  be  modified 
to  suit  the  appropriations  for  lighting  the 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING        201 

smaller  house.  Such  an  artificial  skylight  is 
quite  suitable  in  a  dining-room  to  obtain  secon- 
dary lighting  effects.  It  would  be  appropriate 
in  a  sun-room,  where  such  novelties  in  lighting 
are  not  out  of  place. 

A  miniature  folding  screen  may  be  mounted 
upon  a  pedestal  to  surround  a  light-source  on 
three  sides,  the  open  side  being  the  one  nearest 
the  wall.  Such  a  fixture  is  not  tall ;  it  will  vary 
from  about  three  feet  to  five  feet,  depending 
upon  its  use.  It  can  be  used  to  illuminate  a 
painting  or  other  important  object,  and  it  has 
the  advantage  of  doing  this  apparently  casu- 
ally, whereas  the  chief  objection  to  fixtures 
specially  mounted  to  illuminate  a  painting  is 
that  their  purpose  is  so  obvious  that  they  are 
often  obtrusive.  A  similar  lighting  effect  may 
be  obtained  by  means  of  a  lantern  on  a  pedestal, 
the  lantern  having  a  panel  with  clear  or  slightly 
diffusing  glass,  or  even  without  glass.  Such 
fixtures  provide  a  novel  distribution  of  lighting, 
somewhat  simulating  that  of  daylight  from 
windows.  They  provide  indirect  lighting  for 
reading  purposes,  but  in  this  case  the  wall  per- 
forms the  function  which  is  chiefly  monopolized 
by  the  ceiling  in  indirect  lighting  systems. 


202  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

The  foregoing  idea  may  be  modified  by  pro- 
viding for  better  control  of  the  light,  even  to 
the  extent  of  using  small  reflectors  or  spot- 
lights. If  such  devices  can  be  concealed,  they 
may  be  used  to  "spot-light"  important  or  in- 
teresting objects.  A  mirror  may  be  placed  in 
a  proper  position  on  a  suspended  bowl  or  at 
the  top  of  a  portable  lamp  so  that  a  beam  of 
light  is  reflected  on  a  picture  or  other  object. 
Several  mirrors  may  be  used  on  the  same  fixture 
to  illuminate  a  number  of  objects. 

There  are  many  special  devices  applicable  to 
the  home  which  have  a  utilitarian  purpose. 
The  chief  difficulty  encountered  is  to  find  these 
devices  on  the  market.  Many  of  them  have 
been  made  and  installed  through  specifications 
in  the  particular  case,  or  by  individuals  who  saw 
their  advantages  and  took  the  trouble  to  have 
them  made.  A  few  of  these  will  be  described 
with  the  hope  that  they  may  meet  the  fancy  of 
the  reader  or  that  they  may  suggest  solutions 
to  other  specific  problems. 

A  small  lamp  installed  in  the  proper  place  in 
the  modern  phonograph  to  illuminate  the  needle 
while  it  is  being  adjusted  in  proper  position 
on  the  record  is  a  convenience  which,  after  us- 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING        203 

ing,  becomes  a  necessity.  There  are  several 
easy  methods  of  installing  it.  A  small  lamp  of 
standard  voltage  and  candelabra  base  may  be 
installed  in  a  reflector  with  a  convenient  switch 
for  controlling  it.  In  fact,  the  switch  may  be 
made  to  close  and  open  when  the  lid  of  the 
instrument  is  opened  and  closed  respectively. 
The  bell-ringing  transformer  is  now  available 
at  low  cost.  This  may  be  concealed  in  the  case 
of  the  instrument,  and  a  miniature  lamp  con- 
nected to  it  may  be  fastened  to  the  mechanism 
in  such  a  position  that  the  needle  is  illuminated. 
In  fact,  the  lamps  and  reflectors  used  on  instru- 
ment-boards of  automobiles  can  be  easily 
adapted  to  this  purpose. 

As  a  matter  of  safety,  lighting  devices  are 
used  to  illuminate  steps  which  are  ordinarily 
dangerous.  Usually  a  small  fixture  containing 
a  lamp  is  embedded  in  the  structure  at  the 
proper  location,  so  that  it  is  flush  with  the  sur- 
face. Only  a  plate  of  diffusing  glass  needs  to 
be  visible.  Such  a  device  set  in  the  door-casing 
outdoors  at  the  entrances  of  the  house  at  a 
height  of  about  four  or  five  feet  is  a  safeguard 
for  the  housewife.  By  controlling  it  on  the  in- 
side, the  face  of  the  caller  can  be  clearly  dis- 


204  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tinguished  when  desired.  These  would  be  use- 
ful only  in  those  cases  where  a  fixture  is  not 
available  or  cannot  be  installed  in  the  proper 
position. 

Everyone  has  experienced  the  annoyance  of 
searching  for  a  house-number  at  night.  How 
much  satisfaction  they  would  have  if  their 
house-number  were  illuminated.  To  operate 
the  lantern  at  the  entrance  every  evening  for 
several  hours  is  unduly  costly,  and  in  most 
cases  this  would  not  adequately  illuminate  the 
number.  It  is  easy  to  devise  a  small  metal  box 
containing  one  or  two  miniature  lamps  con- 
nected to  the  bell-ringing  transformer.  The 
number  can  be  painted  upon  a  diffusing  glass 
and  protected  by  a  clear  glass  which  forms  the 
cover  of  the  box.  If  the  lamps  are  operated 
below  their  normal  voltage,  the  amount  of  elec- 
tricity which  they  will  consume  is  almost  neg- 
ligible. Furthermore,  the  lamps  will  operate 
for  years  before  burning  out.  If  desired,  a  time- 
switch  can  be  provided  for  controlling  this  de- 
vice and  perhaps  other  electrical  devices. 

Those  who  become  interested  in  lighting  will 
be  surprised  to  learn  how  many  switches, 
sockets  and  other  lighting  accessories  are  avail- 


NOVELTIES  IN  LIGHTING        205 

able,  to  be  adapted  to  the  needs  which  arise. 
Simple  "  flashers "  for  producing  lighting  ef- 
fects automatically  can  be  obtained.  Sockets 
in  which  a  dimming  device  is  incorporated  are 
available  for  night-lights  in  the  bathroom,  hall 
or  sick-room.  If  it  is  desired  to  "turn  down" 
a  pair  of  candlesticks  or  two  other  lamps,  a 
switch  can  be  obtained  which  will  place  them 
in  "  series "  and  will  also  make  it  possible  to 
burn  them  at  their  normal  brightness  in  "paral- 
lel" when  desired.  "Pilot-lights"  are  con- 
venient to  show  when  an  electric  flat-iron  or 
other  electrically  heated  devices  are  in  opera- 
tion. Such  conveniences  are  appearing  on  the 
market.  Although  lighting  is  Inexpensive,  be- 
cause of  the  few  hours  during  which  it  is  in 
use  each  day,  a  lamp  which  burns  for  a  week 
in  the  attic  will  add  materially  to  the  lighting 
bill.  For  example,  a  25-watt  lamp  operating 
for  a  week  will  cost  the  householder  from 
twenty  to  forty  cents,  depending  upon  the  rates. 
Indicating  switches  or  pilot-lights  in  convenient 
places  might  be  worthwhile  as  indicators  of 
lamps  and  other  devices  which  are  left  burn- 
ing unnoticed.  These  may  not  be  important  to 
the  householder,  but  they  have  their  uses  and 


206  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

may  suggest  solutions  of  certain  specific  prob- 
lems. Electric-lamps  may  be  used  in  emergen- 
cies at  least  for  heating  purposes.  They  are 
safe  and  convenient.  A  watt  of  electricity  con- 
sumed by  a  lamp  and  converted  to  heat  and  light 
is  just  as  effective  for  heating  purposes  as  a 
watt  consumed  by  heaters  designed  for  the  pur- 
pose. Many  ingenious  persons  have  warmed 
the  bed  on  a  sleeping-porch  with  an  electric 
lamp,  and  they  have  also  devised  foot-warmers 
and  tireless-cookers  by  the  same  simple  means. 


XIII 

INCANDESCENT   LAMPS   FOR   THE    HOME 


present  possibilities  of  lighting  in  the 
JL  home  are  due  to  the  wonderful  develop- 
ment in  electric  incandescent  filament  lamps  in 
the  present  century.  Modern  lamps  of  this 
character  are  efficient,  compact,  convenient  and 
safe,  and  they  are  made  in  such  a  variety  of 
shapes  and  sizes  that  the  light  may  be  controlled 
as  desired.  The  possibilities  of  lighting  by 
means  of  them  are  incomparably  greater  than 
those  of  open  flames,  although  gas-lighting  has 
advanced  remarkably,  considering  its  inherent 
disadvantages.  The  first  incandescent  lamp  in 
which  a  carbon  filament  was  used  was  made  in 
1879.  This  represented  a  great  stride  in  the 
progress  of  lighting,  despite  the  crudity  of  the 
lamp.  These  early  lamps  were  used  predomi- 
nantly in  residence  lighting,  and,  in  fact,  this 
field  of  lighting  was  the  parent  of  the  enormous 
electrical  industry  of  the  present  time.  Many 
improvements  were  made  in  this  early  carbon 

207 


208  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

filament  lamp  which  resulted  in  a  several-fold 
increase  in  the  efficiency  of  light-production. 
However,  the  year  1906  marked  an  epoch  in 
residence  lighting  and,  in  fact,  in  lighting  in  gen- 
eral, for  then  the  metal  filaments  were  intro- 
duced. The  first  to  appear  was  the  tantalum 
lamp,  in  which  the  metal  " tantalum"  was  intro- 
duced as  filament  material.  This  was  a  worthy 
improvement,  but  it  was  destined  shortly  to  be 
eclipsed  by  the  tungsten  filament  lamp. 

The  scientific  problem  in  producing  light  by 
heating  to  incandescence,  by  means  of  an  elec- 
tric current,  such  solids  as  filaments  is  funda- 
mentally one  of  obtaining  materials  which  will 
withstand  high  temperatures.  Inasmuch  as  the 
present  method  consists  of  passing  an  electric 
current  through  the  filament,  the  latter  must 
conduct  electricity  reasonably  well.  The 
numerous  scientific  problems  encountered  in  the 
development  of  modern  incandescent  lamps 
would  not  be  of  interest  to  the  general  reader,  so 
they  will  be  omitted.  However,  certain  general 
principles  are  presented  in  order  that  he  may 
better  understand  modern  incandescent  lamps 
and  their  uses.  The  hot  filament  slowly  evapor- 
ates and  condenses  upon  the  cooler  parts  of  the 


INCANDESCENT  LAMPS          209 

lamp,  that  is,  chiefly  upon  the  bulb.  This  coat- 
ing gradually  becomes  thicker,  until  it  appears 
black  in  carbon  filament  lamps.  It  interferes 
with  the  passage  of  light  from  the  filament 
through  the  bulb  and  reduces  the  efficiency  of 
the  lamp.  This  evaporation  and  consequent 
blackening  of  the  bulb  has  been  constantly 
studied  by  scientific  men,  such  as  those  groups 
which  have  developed  and  are  always  seeking 
to  improve  the  tungsten  filament  lamp.  Car- 
bon will  withstand  higher  temperatures  before 
melting  than  the  metals  used  in  filaments  at  the 
present  time,  but  it  evaporates  more  readily. 
Although  this  evaporation  of  the  filament  and 
blackening  of  the  bulb  was  greatly  reduced  as 
the  carbon  filament  lamp  evolved,  much  better 
results  were  finally  obtained  with  metal  fila- 
ments. The  early  lamps  were  enclosed  in  a 
bulb  from  which  the  air  was  exhausted.  This 
was  necessary  in  order  to  eliminate  chemical  ac- 
tion between  the  hot  filament  and  oxygen  in  the 
air.  But  just  as  water  boils  at  a  lower  temper- 
ature at  high  altitudes  (lower  atmospheric 
pressure),  the  evaporation  of  the  carbon  from 
the  filament  was  greatly  facilitated  in  the 
vacuum  of  extremely  low  pressure. 


210  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

The  efficiency  of  light-production  increases 
rapidly  with  increase  of  temperature,  and  inas- 
much as  the  blackening  of  the  bulb  limited  the 
temperature  of  the  carbon  filament  to  a  lower 
temperature  than  that  at  which  it  was  found 
practicable  to  operate  a  tungsten  filament,  the 
latter  was  a  more  efficient  producer  of  light. 
The  tungsten  lamps  rapidly  superseded  the  car- 
bon filament,  despite  the  fact  that  their  fila- 
ments were  fragile.  When  tungsten  was  first 
introduced  as  filament  material  it  was  very 
brittle  and  could  not  be  drawn  into  wire.  It 
was  finely  divided  and  fused  into  a  slender 
filament.  However,  organized  science  attacked 
the  problem  of  rendering  tungsten  ductile,  and 
finally  achieved  a  success  worthy  of  being 
ranked  among  the  greatest  achievements  of 
science.  The  filaments  of  tungsten  lamps  are 
now  about  as  strong  as  any  metal  known,  be- 
ing stronger  than  the  best  piano  wire. 

During  the  first  few  years  that  tungsten  fila- 
ments were  used  in  lamps  the  bulbs  were  evacu- 
ated for  the  same  reason  that  carbon  filaments 
were  used  in  a  vacuum.  As  already  stated, 
this  low  pressure  increased  evaporation.  If 
gas  could  be  left  in  the  bulb  without  reacting 


INCANDESCENT  LAMPS          211 

chemically  upon  the  filament,  the  blackening  of 
the  bulb  would  be  decreased.  However,  this 
gas  would  cool  the  filament,  and  more  electrical 
energy  would  be  required  to  maintain  the  fila- 
ment at  the  desired  temperature.  It  is  seen 
that  the  loss  of  energy  by  conduction  through 
the  gas  lowers  the  efficiency  of  the  lamp.  The 
possibility  of  using  an  inert  gas  in  the  bulb, 
that  is,  one  which  did  not  chemically  unite  with 
the  filament  material,  had  long  been  recognized, 
but  it  was  not  until  1910  that  drawn-wire  tung- 
sten made  it  possible  to  achieve  success.  With 
such  ductile  tungsten  it  became  possible  to 
wind  slender  helices  and  to  make  virtually 
thicker  filaments ;  that  is,  the  coils  were  now,  in 
effect,  thick  filaments.  This  was  just  what  was 
required  to  allow  the  use  of  inert  gases,  such 
as  nitrogen  and  argon,  in  the  bulb  to  reduce 
evaporation  and  thereby  make  it  possible  to  in- 
crease the  filament  temperature  without  such  a 
loss  through  the  cooling  action  of  the  gas  as 
to  defeat  the  gain  in  efficiency  due  to  the  higher 
temperature.  Without  going  into  details  or 
finally  analyzing  the  results,  it  was  found  that 
the  gains  exceeded  the  losses  sufficiently  to 
make  a  much  more  efficient  lamp.  Thus  the 


212  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

gas-filled  tungsten  lamp  was  born.  These  are 
technically  known  as  gas-filled  lamps,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  vacuum  type. 

The  foregoing  accounts  for  the  terms 
" vacuum "  and  " gas-filled"  tungsten  lamps. 
The  loss  due  to  the  conduction  of  heat  by  the 
gas  in  the  gas-filled  lamp  is  manifested  by  the 
hot  bulb.  It  is  considerably  hotter  than  the 
bulb  of  a  vacuum  lamp,  and  for  this  reason  it 
should  not  be  in  contact  with  parchment  or 
textile  shades.  When  it  is  an  inch  or  two  from 
such  materials,  there  is  no  danger  of  deteriora- 
tion. Both  of  these  types  of  lamps  are  useful 
in  the  home.  In  fact,  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  efficiency  of  light-production,  there  is  no  ex- 
cuse for  using  carbon  filament  lamps.  Some 
prefer  the  warmer  color  of  the  latter,  but  this 
may  be  obtained  more  efficiently  by  tinting  the 
light  from  tungsten  lamps,  as  touched  upon  in 
a  later  chapter. 

Lamps  of  many  shapes  and  sizes  are  avail- 
able at  standard  voltages.  In  all  cases  stand- 
ard lamps  should  be  used  if  possible,  because 
these  are  cheaper  for  obvious  reasons  and  are 
readily  obtained.  Miniature  lamps  have  some 
special  uses  in  the  home,  and  these  may  be 


INCANDESCENT  LAMPS          213 

purchased  at  the  dealers.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  screw  bases  for  lamps,  namely,  the  reg- 
ular base  for  the  lamps  commonly  used,  the 
candelabra  base  for  lamps  of  smaller  sizes,  and 
the  miniature  base  for  lamps  of  the  smallest 
sizes,  such  as  those  of  flashlight  lamps.  The 
voltage  is  important,  for  with  a  decrease  in 
voltage  the  amount  of  light  is  markedly  reduced. 
The  manufacturer  has  elaborately  studied  the 
three  factors — cost  of  electricity,  the  life  of 
lamps,  and  the  output  of  light — and  has 
balanced  these  most  economically  for  the  user 
of  light.  Therefore  the  voltage  on  the  labels 
of  lamps  should  correspond  to  the  voltage  of 
the  service  lines.  Although  the  blackening  of 
tungsten  lamps  is  no  longer  a  serious  factor,  it 
is  cheaper  in  the  long  run  to  discard  a  lamp 
which  has  become  blackened  by  deterioration  or 
by  dirt  which  cannot  be  removed. 

It  is  strange  that  windows  are  washed  to  let 
the  light  in,  but  lamps  are  seldom  washed  to 
let  their  light  out.  Tests  indicate  a  serious 
decrease  in  the  amount  of  light  emitted  by 
lamps  upon  which  dust  has  been  permitted  to 
accumulate  for  several  months.  If  they  are 
washed  occasionally,  the  saving  will  register 


214  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

upon  the  lighting  bills.  Efficiency  is  not  the 
most  important  factor,  but  waste  is  inexcusable 
when  it  is  a  waste  due  to  negligence.  It  is  not 
wasteful  to  diffuse  or  to  tint  the  light;  in  fact, 
if  this  is  required  to  produce  a  pleasing  effect, 
the  efficiency  of  the  lighting  system  in  a  broad 
sense  has  increased.  However,  the  loss  of  light 
due  to  accumulation  of  dust  which  is  easily  re- 
moved is  waste. 

The  regular  vacuum  and  gas-filled  lamps  ob- 
tainable in  standard  voltages  from  110  to  125 
volts  and  their  outputs  of  light  are  indicated 
below.  It  will  be  noted  that  lamps  are  now 
rated  in  lumens,  instead  of  candle-power.  The 
former  is  more  rational,  for  it  represents  quant- 
ity of  light,  while  the  latter  represents  the  inten- 
sity of  the  light-source.  This  is  explained  in 
Chapter  XIV,  which  deals  with  terminology 
useful  in  lighting. 

VACUUM   LAMPS  GAS-FILLED  LAMPS 


10  watts       75  lumens 
15  watts     125  lumens 
25  watts     226  lumens 
40  watts     372  lumens 
50  watts     480  lumens 
60  watts     575  lumens 

50  watts       450  lumens 
75  watts       805  lumens 
100  watts     1260  lumens 
150  watts     2040  lumens 
200  watts     3100  lumens 
300  watts     4840  lumens 

The  50- watt  gas-filled  lamp  is  at  present  made 


INCANDESCENT  LAMPS          215 

with  a  white  diffusing  glass  bulb  for  homes. 
All  the  other  lamps  may  be  obtained  with  clear 
bulbs,  with  bowl  or  tip  frosted,  or  with  the  en- 
tire bulb  frosted.  The  larger  gas-filled  lamps 
have  little  usefulness  in  the  home,  but  the 
smaller  sizes  should  be  used  in  such  places  as 
single-socket  large  bowls  or  in  the  part  of  a 
special  portable  which  supplies  an  upward  com- 
ponent of  light.  The  '  '  daylight ' '  lamp  is  made 
in  sizes  from  75  watts  upward,  and  the  75-watt, 
100-watt,  and  150-watt  sizes  are  useful  in  the 
sewing-room,  the  kitchen  and  the  laundry,  while 
many  prefer  them  for  reading-lamps.  Their 
efficiency  is  about  two  thirds  that  of  gas-filled 
lamps  of  corresponding  wattage,  and  the  out- 
puts may  be  computed  as  two  thirds  of  the 
lumens  of  these  corresponding  lamps. 

It  may  be  advantageous  to  provide  a  chart 
upon  which  is  marked  the  necessary  data  for 
the  lamps  which  have  been  found  satisfactory 
for  various  fixtures.  This  may  insure  that 
proper  lamps  are  purchased  or  are  on  hand. 
For  the  home,  all-frosted,  bowl-frosted,  or  other 
diffusing  lamps  are  often  most  desirable.  Even 
when  lamps  are  entirely  concealed  from  the 
eyes,  for  example,  as  in  the  case  of  an  inverted 


216  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

bowl  in  semi-indirect  lighting,  the  lighting  effect 
is  often  more  desirable  with  diffusing  lamps 
than  with  clear  ones,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
harsh  shadows.  When  clear  lamps  are  used, 
shadows  of  chains  and  other  portions  of  fixtures 
sometimes  spoil  the  lighting  effect.  There  is 
evidence  on  every  hand  to  emphasize  the  import- 
ance of  this  apparently  minor  detail.  Frosted 
or  other  diffusing  lamps  remedy  this  defect.  In 
some  cases  this  may  readily  be  accomplished  by 
covering  the  top  of  the  fixture  with  a  sheet  of 
frosted  or  other  diffusing  glass  or  even  thin 
cloth  or  paper. 

Bowl-frosted  lamps  are  generally  best  in 
pendent  shades,  such  as  those  of  a  shower,  for 
the  fixture  not  only  possesses  a  more  desirable 
appearance,  but  the  lighting  effect  is  more 
pleasing  and  the  possibility  of  glare  is  reduced. 
Tinted  lamps  are  discussed  in  another  chapter, 
but  a  few  remarks  may  be  appropriate  at  this 
point. 

Much  can  be  done  with  tinted  lamps,  and 
this  insures  the  eventual  commercialization  of 
simple  means  for  obtaining  tinted  light. 
Many  persons  desire  the  warmer  tint  of  the 
older  illuminants,  such  as  fire-light  and  candle- 


INCANDESCENT  LAMPS        *  217 

light,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  modern  lamp  pro- 
viding such  a  tint,  some  are  still  using  the  car- 
bon-filament lamp  for  its  warmer  color.  Ex- 
periments with  modern  filament  lamps  tinted 
to  match  the  candle-flame  in  color  have  been 
made  for  several  years  and  their  efficiency  in 
making  a  home  more  cheerful  and  inviting  is 
well  established.  It  appears  probable  that  the 
future  will  witness  a  wide  application  of  tinted 
lamps,  because  it  is  logical  that  modern  civili- 
zation should  take  advantage  of  lighting  as  a 
means  for  introducing  the  magical  drapery  of 
color.  Tinted  light  may  be  handled  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  the  use  of  color  in  various  arts. 
For  example,  a  general  illumination  from  yel- 
low-tinted lamps  may  be  kept  alive  by  vital 
sparks  of  complementary  color.  In  more  pre- 
tentious rooms  elaborate  color-schemes  may  be 
worked  out.  In  fact,  in  this  direction  is  to  be 
found  the  line  of  future  progress  which  may 
lead  eventually  to  the  development  of  lighting  as 
a  fine  art. 


XIV 

TERMINOLOGY 

THERE  are  many  terms  used  in  lighting 
which  are  not  of  particular  interest  to  the 
user  of  light,  but  there  are  a  few  with  which  he 
should  be  acquainted.  These  will  be  defined 
and  described  as  simply  as  possible.  To  most 
persons  the  common  electrical  terms  are  still 
shrouded  in  mystery,  but  they  are  not  difficult 
to  understand.  A  scientific  discussion  of  the 
origin  and  absolute  values  of  these  terms  will 
be  avoided,  for  it  is  only  necessary  to  have  a 
conception  of  their  practical  value  and  mean- 
ing. Obviously,  as  new  discoveries  are  made  in 
science,  words  must  be  coined  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  use  the  names  of 
scientific  men  who  have  contributed  toward  the 
particular  science  in  which  the  terms  have  been 
adopted. 

Volt.  Voltage  as  an  electrical  term  is 
analogous  to  pressure  due  to  a  water  reservoir. 
By  virtue  of  the  voltage,  electric  current  is 

218 


TERMINOLOGY  219 

forced  through  a  conductor.  By  increasing  the 
pressure,  more  water  flows  through  a  given 
pipe.  In  an  analogous  manner,  as  the  voltage 
increases,  more  current  flows  through  a  lamp 
or  other  conductor.  Electrical  devices  are  de- 
signed to  operate  satisfactorily  for  a  certain 
voltage.  If  the  latter  is  increased  considerably, 
sufficient  current  may  be  forced  through  the  de- 
vice to  damage  it.  If  the  voltage  is  decreased 
appreciably,  the  device  will  not  function  at  its 
highest  efficiency.  For  example,  if  the  voltage 
on  a  lamp  is  decreased,  the  output  of  light  de- 
creases; or  if  the  voltage  at  the  terminals  of  a 
flat-iron  decreases,  the  amount  of  heat  gener- 
ated decreases.  The  volt  is  the  unit  of  voltage, 
and  in  homes  it  varies  usually  from  about  110 
to  125  volts,  depending  upon  the  locality.  In 
other  words,  there  is  no  strictly  standard  volt- 
age throughout  the  country.  Each  central  sta- 
tion tries  to  maintain  its  own  voltage  constant, 
and  the  householder  should  ascertain  from  the 
central  station  the  voltage  at  his  house.  He 
should  then  purchase  electrical  devices  for  this 
voltage. 

Ampere.    This  is  the  unit  of  electric  cur- 
rent, or  what  is  popularly  known  as  "electric- 


220  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ity."  A  conception  of  it  is  gained  from  the 
foregoing  definition.  It  corresponds  in  a  way 
to  the  flow  of  water  in  a  water-pipe,  and  just 
as  there  is  resistance  (which  we  call  friction) 
to  the  flow  of  water  through  a  water-pipe,  there 
is  resistance  in  a  wire  to  the  flow  of  electricity. 
To  overcome  this  resistance  electrical  energy 
is  used,  and  this  energy  is  converted  into  heat 
energy.  A  filament  of  a  lamp  becomes  hot  be- 
cause of  its  resistance  to  the  flow  of  electricity. 
The  filament  becomes  heated  by  the  energy  used 
in  a  manner  analogous  to  the  heat  generated  by 
friction  in  a  machine.  In  other  words,  the  elec- 
trical resistance  in  the  filament  of  a  lamp,  in 
the  circuit  of  a  flat-iron,  or  in  the  coils  of  a 
toaster  converts  electrical  energy  into  heat 
energy.  If  the  voltage  is  correct,  the  current 
need  not  bother  the  householder,  because  an 
electrical  device  is  designed  for  a  certain  volt- 
age, which,  of  course,  means  a  definite  current 
through  the  device. 

Watt.  The  watt  is  the  unit  of  electrical 
power,  and  wattage  indicates  the  power  con- 
sumed by  a  lamp  or  other  device.  The  watt  is 
a  measure  of  the  rate  at  which  electrical  energy 
is  being  consumed.  It  is  computed  generally  by 


TERMINOLOGY  221 

multiplying  volts  by  amperes.  It  is  a  small 
unit,  so  the  kilowatt — a  thousand  watts — is  the 
unit  of  electrical  power  in  common  use. 

Kilowatt-hour.  Time  has  not  been  con- 
sidered in  the  foregoing,  and  regardless  of  the 
rate  at  which  electricity  is  consumed  —  watts 
or  kilowatts — no  definite  quantity  is  specified 
until  the  time  during  which  this  rate  of  con- 
sumption exists  is  considered.  If  the  kilo- 
watts are  multiplied  by  the  hours,  we  have  kilo- 
watt-hours. This  is  what  the  electric-meter 
records  and  is  what  we  pay  for.  Perhaps  an 
example  will  make  it  clear.  Assume  a  25-watt 
lamp  to  burn  continuously  for  a  week,  the  prob- 
lem is  to  find  the  kilowatt-hours.  This  is  done 
as  follows: 

25  (watts)  x  24  (hours)  x  7  (days)  =  4200 

watt-hours. 

The  kilowatt  being  equal  to  1000  watts,  by  di- 
viding 4200  by  1000,  we  have  4.2  kilowatt-hours. 
It  is  now  a  simple  matter  to  determine  the  cost, 
for  if  the  rate  is  ten  cents  per  kilowatt-hour, 
the  cost  is  42  cents.  Some  central  stations  have 
a  step  rate,  or  a  high  one  followed  by  a  low 
one.  It  is  well  to  consider  that  any  additional 
use  of  electricity  which  may  be  contemplated 


222  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

would  be  usually  obtained  at  the  low  rate  under 
such  a  system. 

Incidentally,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  touch 
upon  electrical  devices  in  general  from  the 
standpoint  of  computing  the  cost  of  operation. 
The  cost  per  hour  can  be  determined  by  divid- 
ing the  wattage  indicated  on  the  label  by  1000 
and  then  multiplying  the  result  by  the  cost 
of  electrical  energy  per  kilowatt-hour.  For 
example,  if  an  electrical  device  is  labelled  400 
watts,  it  consumes  at  the  rate  of  0.4  kilowatt. 
For  one  hour  this  would  be  0.4  kilowatt-hour, 
which  at  a  ten-cent  rate  would  cost  four  cents 
per  hour  to  operate.  If  electrical  energy  costs 
five  cents  per  kilowatt-hour,  the  device  would 
cost  only  two  cents  per  hour  to  operate.  This 
has  been  dwelt  upon  at  length  because  it  is  im- 
portant, or  at  least  convenient,  for  the  house- 
holder to  know  how  to  compute  the  cost  of 
operating  various  devices.  There  is  much  un- 
certainty and  many  misconceptions  in  regard 
to  the  cost  of  operating  the  electrical  devices 
in  everyday  use.  And  just  a  word  in  regard 
to  the  meter.  It  is  not  a  robber.  It  aims  to 
record  fairly,  and  it  does  so  in  almost  every 


TERMINOLOGY  223 

case.  Incidentally,  the  householder  may  learn 
to  read  his  meter  by  comparing  his  latest  bill 
with  the  reading  as  he  determines  it.  A  little 
thought  will  reveal  the  simplicity  of  such  read- 
ing. 

Now  let  us  turn  to  lighting  terminology. 

Candle-power.  For  many  years,  in  fact, 
since  gas-lighting  was  born,  the  light  from  a 
standard  candle,  measured  in  a  single  horizon- 
tal direction,  was  taken  as  the  unit  of  luminous 
intensity.  For  this  reason  the  intensities  of 
various  light-sources  have  been  rated  in  candle- 
power.  The  luminous  intensity  of  an  ordinary 
"safety"  match  is  about  one  third  that  of  a 
standard  candle,  and  the  luminous  intensity  of 
an  ordinary  paraffin  candle  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  is  somewhat  more  than  half 
that  of  a  standard  candle.  Eecently  it  has  be- 
come recognized  that  the  term  "candle"  is  an 
inconvenient  and  misleading  one,  for  it  mea- 
sures luminous  intensity,  and  not  quantity.  In 
other  words,  it  is  somewhat  analogous  to  water- 
pressure  or  to  voltage.  Furthermore,  the 
candle-power  in  one  direction  is  no  indication 
of  the  candle-power  in  any  other  direction. 


224  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

What  the  user  of  light  is  generally  interested  in 
is  the  total  quantity  of  light  which  is  emitted 
by  a  lamp. 

Lumen.  For  the  foregoing  reasons  the  term 
11  lumen "  has  been  coined  as  a  unit  or  measure 
of  quantity  of  light.  This  may  best  be  de- 
scribed by  returning  to  the  candle.  If  a  hypo- 
thetical candle-flame  has  an  intensity  of  one 
candle  in  all  directions,  it  would  emit  12.57 
lumens  of  light.  This  figure  is  a  result  of  a 
certain  mathematical  relation  involving  the  ab- 
solute value  of  terms  which  need  not  be  dis- 
cussed. It  is  sufficient  to  know  that  a  lamp 
emits  a  certain  number  of  lumens.  In  Chapter 
XIII  the  approximate  quantities  of  light 
emitted  by  certain  incandescent  filament  lamps 
at  the  present  time  are  given.  These  values 
gradually  increase  as  advances  are  made  in  the 
art  of  manufacturing  lamps.  An  ordinary 
" safety"  match  emits  four  or  five  lumens;  a 
large  household  match  about  thirteen  lumens 
(about  the  same  as  a  standard  candle) ;  and  a 
paraffin  candle  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, seven  or  eight  lumens. 

Foot-candle.  We  now  come  to  the  matter  of 
illumination.  If  a  small  surface  be  held  at  a 


TERMINOLOGY  225 

distance  of  one  foot  from  a  light-source  which 
has  an  intensity  of  one  candle  in  that  direction, 
the  surface  perpendicular  to  that  direction  will 
be  illuminated  to  an  intensity  of  one  foot-candle. 
This  intensity  decreases  with  the  square  of  the 
distance;  that  is,  if  the  surface  is  moved  to  a 
distance  of  two  feet  from  the  same  light-source 
and  in  the  same  direction,  the  intensity  of  illumi- 
nation upon  the  surface  is  one  quarter  of  that  at 
a  distance  of  one  foot.  Thus  the  illumination 
due  to  a  lamp  rapidly  decreases  as  the  distance 
from  the  lamp  increases.  In  general,  then,  the 
intensity  of  illumination  at  any  point  is  found 
by  dividing  the  candle-power  of  the  source  in 
that  direction  by  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
the  point  to  the  light-source.  This  law  holds 
only  when  the  source  is  small  as  compared  with 
the  distance.  It  is  satisfactory  when  the  dis- 
tance is  at  least  ten  times  greater  than  the 
maximum  dimension  of  the  light-source  as  seen 
from  the  point  where  the  illumination  is  being 
considered.  Illumination  intensity  is,  in  real- 
ity, the  rate  at  which  light  is  received  at  the 
point  in  question.  Fortunately,  the  lumen  fits 
well  into  the  scheme,  for  a  foot-candle  is  the 
intensity  of  illumination  when  a  surface  a 


226  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

square  foot  in  area  receives  one  lumen  of  light. 
If  this  square  foot  receives  three  lumens,  the 
illumination  intensity  is  three  foot-candles. 
Incidentally,  this  is  about  the  lowest  value  one 
should  have  for  ordinary  reading.  For  finer 
work  an  illumination  of  ten  foot-candles  is  bet- 
ter, and  for  sewing  on  dark  goods  higher  inten- 
sities are  desirable.  There  is  no  danger  from 
high  intensities  of  illumination  when  the  light- 
sources  are  shaded  and  the  light  is  distributed 
properly,  because  the  intensities  of  illumination 
outdoors  in  the  open  are  as  great  as  10,000 
foot-candles  at  noon  on  a  clear  summer's  day. 
Brightness.  Illumination  is  the  cause  and 
brightness  is  the  effect.  An  oriental  rug  may 
be  uniformly  illuminated,  but  it  is  not  uni- 
formly bright,  as  indicated  by  the  pattern. 
Brightness  depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  sur- 
face to  reflect  light.  There  are  certain  terms 
used  in  lighting  which  are  units  or  measures  of 
brightness.  Candles  per  square  inch  is  one  of 
these.  However,  for  the  broader  view  of  light- 
ing which  deals  with  light  as  a  medium  analog- 
ous to  those  of  the  decorator,  the  term  "value" 
may  be  borrowed  from  the  artist.  The  value 
scale  consists  of  an  arbitrary  number  of  steps 


TERMINOLOGY  227 

between  the  extremes  of  black  and  white  pig- 
ments or  other  materials,  the  illumination  be- 
ing assumed  to  be  of  constant  intensity.  In 
other  words,  it  consists  of  a  series  of  grays 
from  white  to  black.  The  author  a  number  of 
years  ago  l  suggested  the  following  values  of 
reflection-factor  for  the  artist's  scale  of  values. 
These  were  suggested  from  measurements 
which  established  the  reflection-factors  of  com- 
mercial "whites"  and  " blacks "  between  their 
respective  limits,  as  shown: 

SCALE  OF  VALUES 
Symbol  Value  Reflection-factor 

(per  cent) 

W  white  80-00 

HL  high  light  70-80 

L  light  60-70 

LL  low  light  50-60 

M  medium  40-50 

HD  high  dark  30-40 

D  dark  20-30 

LD  low  dark  10-30 

B  black  0-10 

Values  are  relative  terms,  and  herein  lies  their 
usefulness.  The  householder  is  not  concerned 
with  absolute  brightness,  but  with  relative 

i  "Light  and   Shade  and  their  Applications,"   1916,  by  M. 
Luckiesh. 


228  -         LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

values.  The  scale  of  values  presented  in  the 
foregoing  will  be  a  series  of  uniform  steps  un- 
der equal  intensities  of  illumination.  This  is 
obvious  when  it  is  considered  that  a  so-called 
"black"  can  be  illuminated  to  such  a  high  in- 
tensity as  to  be  brighter  than  a  so-called 
"white"  under  a  low  intensity  of  illumination. 
This  effect  of  distribution  of  light  has  been 
emphasized  in  other  chapters,  for  it  is  a  great 
influence  upon  the  distribution  and  balance  of 
values  of  any  decorative  scheme. 

Diffusion.  There  is  more  or  less  indefinite- 
ness  in  regard  to  the  term  "diffused  light." 
The  meaning  of  the  term  usually  depends  upon 
the  viewpoint.  We  place  an  opal-glass  ball 
around  a  bare  lamp  to  ' '  diffuse  the  light. ' '  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  ordinarily  we  do  no  more  than 
reduce  the  brightness  of  the  lighting  unit  in 
such  cases;  that  is,  instead  of  having  a  certain 
number  of  lumens  emitted  by  a  small  light- 
source  which  necessarily  must  be  bright  in 
order  to  emit  this  amount  of  light,  most  of  the 
lumens  now  come  from  the  secondary  source 
which,  in  the  foregoing  case,  is  the  opal  glass 
ball.  *  '  Diffused  light "  or  "  diffusion  of  light ' ' 
often  implies  scattering  of  light,  and  wThen  the 


TERMINOLOGY  229 

term  "  diffused "  is  applied  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  light  is  finally  distributed  in  a  room, 
it  generally  implies  large  secondary  sources  of 
light,  such  as  an  illuminated  ceiling  in  the  case 
of  so-called  semi-indirect  and  indirect  lighting. 
If  we  concentrate  our  attention  upon  an  object 
and  state  that  the  object  is  diffusely  illuminated, 
we  mean  that  it  receives  light  from  many  direc- 
tions. If  there  is  a  single  direct-lighting  fixture 
in  a  room,  an  object,  such  as  a  pencil,  will  cast 
a  single  definite  shadow.  This  cast  shadow  in 
general  will  not  be  black,  for  it  receives  some 
light  from  the  various  objects  in  the  room. 
The  light  which  reaches  the  shadow  is  said  to 
be  "  diffused  light, "  and  it  is  measured  in  per 
cent,  by  taking  the  ratio  of  the  brightness  of  the 
shadow  cast  upon  a  white  or  gray  surface  to  the 
brightness  of  the  surface  adjacent  to  the  cast 
shadow.  The  term  "shadow"  is  applied  to  the 
darker  portion  of  an  object  as  compared  with 
the  term  "cast  shadow,"  which  is  the  effect 
produced  upon  another  object  by  the  intercep- 
tion of  light  by  the  first  object.  Outdoors  the 
ratio  of  the  brightness  of  a  shadow  cast  upon  a 
white  surface,  for  example,  to  the  brightness  of 
the  surface  adjacent  to  the  shadow  represents 


230  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

the  fraction  of  the  total  light  received  at  that 
point,  which  consists  of  skylight  and  other 
scattered  light.  The  value  of  this  ratio  varies 
from  about  one  under  a  uniformly  overcast  sky 
to  about  one  tenth  on  a  very  sunny  day  with  a 
deep  blue  sky.  An  intimate  view  of  these  de- 
tails gives  a  clearer  conception  of  the  finer 
points  of  lighting  and  lighting  effects. 

Light.  This  is  a  term  which  is  used  in  dif- 
ferent senses.  Throughout  this  book  it  is  con- 
fined to  radiant  energy  which  stimulates  the 
sensation  of  light.  It  is  that  energy  which  is 
essential  to  vision. 

Radiant  energy.  A  light-source,  such  as  the 
sun  or  an  incandescent  filament  lamp,  emits 
radiant  energy  of  many  wave-lengths.  This 
energy  is  not  unlike  that  emitted  by  a  sending- 
station  in  wireless  telegraphy;  in  fact,  it  is 
technically  known  as  electromagnetic  energy. 
From  such  light-sources  as  mentioned  only  a 
portion  of  the  energy  is  capable  of  exciting  the 
sensation  of  light.  To  state  it  in  another  man- 
ner, the  eye  as  the  receiving  station  is  tuned 
to  respond  to  radiant  energy  of  only  a  narrow 
range  of  wave-lengths.  These  rays  of  various 
wave-lengths  excite  respectively  the  various 


TERMINOLOGY  231 

spectral  colors  from  violet  to  red.  The  invis- 
ible rays  are  aiso  of  various  wave-lengths. 
Those  of  shorter  wave-length  than  the  violet 
rays  are  called  ultraviolet,  and  those  of  longer 
wave-length  than  the  red  are  called  infra-red 
rays.  The  latter  are  also  termed  "heat  rays," 
but  this  term  is  misleading,  because  all  rays 
may  be  converted  into  heat.  If  pieces  of  metal 
are  painted  different  colors  and  are  laid  upon 
snow  on  a  sunny  winter's  day,  in  an  hour  or 
two  they  will  be  found  to  have  sunk  to  different 
depths  in  the  snow.  Those  which  absorb  the 
greatest  quantities  of  the  energy  radiated  by 
the  sun  will  become  warmer  than  the  others,  and 
consequently  will  sink  deeper  by  melting  the 
snow  underneath  them  more  rapidly. 

Luminous  efficiency.  This  is  a  term  which  is 
generally  abbreviated  into  the  "  efficiency "  of 
a  light-source.  It  is  applicable  only  to  a  nar- 
row or  restricted  view  of  the  term  "efficiency/* 
It  is  determined  by  dividing  the  output  of  light 
by  the  input  in  energy;  or  it  is  the  lumens  di- 
vided by  the  watts  which  gives  the  value  of 
lumens  per  watt.  It  is  a  measure  of  the  amount 
of  light  produced  by  a  certain  rate  of  consump- 
tion of  electricity.  If  a  25-watt  lamp  emits  225 


232  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

lumens,  its  luminous  efficiency  is  9  lumens  per 
watt.  In  home-lighting  it  is  well  to  have  a 
broader  view  of  efficiency.  Let  us  assume  that 
for  general  lighting  in  the  living-room  the  light 
should  be  tinted,  perhaps,  to  a  warmer  color. 
By  coloring  the  lamp  so  that  it  emits  light  of 
the  desired  tint,  the  satisfactoriness  is  increased 
at  the  expense  of  some  light.  The  luminous, 
efficiency  of  the  lamp  has  decreased,  but  in  a 
broad  sense  the  efficiency  of  the  light  for  this 
particular  case  has  increased.  In  other  words, 
the  efficiency  of  lighting  is  found  by  dividing 
the  satisfactoriness  by  the  cost.  Of  course  it 
is  impossible  to  give  a  precise  value  to  satis- 
factoriness, but  good  judgment  will  properly 
appraise  the  efficiency  in  this  broad  sense 

Lighting  systems.  These  cannot  be  defined 
with  accuracy,  because  there  are  no  dividing 
lines  between  them.  They  are  described  in  de- 
tail in  Chapter  V. 

Some  fundamental  color-terms  are  of  interest 
in  lighting,  and  they  will  become  more  useful 
as  lighting  is  considered  more  broadly  and  as 
color  becomes  more  appreciated,  as  it  should 
be. 

Hue.     This    is    the    colorful    component    of 


TERMINOLOGY  233 

color;  it  is  suggested  by  the  name  of  the  color. 
Scientifically,  it  is  the  spectral  color  (that  par- 
ticular color  in  the  rainbow  or  spectrum)  which 
is  dominant  in  a  color.  It  is  that  component 
which  gives  rise  to  such  names  as  red,  green, 
blue,  etc.  Purple  has  no  equivalent  in  the  spec- 
trum, but  in  a  broad  sense  the  hue  would  be 
purple.  However,  scientifically  the  spectral 
hue  of  its  complement  (green)  is  generally  de- 
termined in  order  to  attach  it  to  the  spectrum 
in  color  specifications. 

Complementary    colored    lights.     Two    col- 
ored lights  which  form  white  by  mixture  are 
termed   "  complementary. "    Pairs   of   comple- 
mentary colored  lights  are: 
Bed  and  blue-green 
Yellow  and  blue 
Green  and  purple. 

That  is,  these  pairs  when  mixed  in  proper  pro- 
portions produce  subjective  white  lights. 

Saturation  or  purity.  The  spectral  hues  are 
in  a  physical  sense  the  colors  of  maximum  sat- 
uration or  of  maximum  purity.  By  mixing 
white  with  any  pure  hue,  its  purity  or  satura- 
tion is  decreased.  Colors  containing  white  or 
colors  not  of  maximum  purity  or  saturation  are 


234  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

said  to  be  tints.  The  color  of  noon  sunlight 
may  be  taken  as  white.  The  color  of  the  light 
from  a  tungsten  lamp  is  a  very  un  saturated  yel- 
low. 

Shade.  This  is  the  same  as  value.  It  is  the 
brightness  component  of  a  color.  A  shade  of 
a  given  color  is  produced  by  decreasing  the  in- 
tensity of  illumination  upon  it  or  by  mixing 
black  with  it. 

Primary  colors.  There  is  much  confusion  in 
regard  to  the  primary  colors  and  the  results  of 
color-mixture,  and  there  is  also  a  loose  and  in- 
accurate use  of  certain  color-terms.  This  con- 
fusion arises  from  the  lack  of  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  difference  between  mixing  lights  and 
mixing  pigments.  When  we  mix  lights,  we  add 
their  luminosities,  and  the  result  is  additive. 
The  primary  colors  for  the  additive  method  of 
mixing  color,  that  is,  of  mixing  lights,  are  red, 
green  and  blue.  In  mixing  pigments  or  dyes 
we  encounter  a  subtraction  of  light;  that  is,  the 
light  reflected  by  two  pigments  which  are  inti- 
mately mixed  is  that  which  is  common  to  the 
two.  The  light  which  is  reflected  from  a  green 
pigment,  for  example,  is  colored,  because  it  has 
passed  through  minute  green  flakes  and  has 


TERMINOLOGY  235 

been  reflected  eventually  from  the  surface.  It 
is  easy  to  see  the  subtractive  principle  by  super- 
posing pieces  of  colored  glass.  The  only  light 
which  will  pass  through  superposed  yellow  and 
blue-green  glasses  is  green  light.  This  is  the 
spectral  component  common  to  both  of  them. 
The  primary  colors  for  the  subtractive  method 
are  purple,  yellow  and  blue-green.  It  will  be 
noted  that  these  names  differ  from  those  com- 
monly applied  by  the  painter  to  his  subtractive 
primaries.  Herein  lies  the  source  of  confu- 
sion for,  instead  of  the  painter's  primaries  be- 
ing red,  yellow,  and  blue,  they  are  purple,  yel- 
low and  blue-green.1  To  summarize,  the  two 
sets  of  primary  colors  are : 

Additive  Subtractive 

Eed  Blue-green 

Green  Purple 

Blue  Yellow 

From  this  arrangement  a  striking  relation  is 
seen,  namely,  that  the  components  of  the  two 
sets  of  primary  colors  are  complementary  to 
each  other.  The  additive  primaries,  or  pri- 

i  See  "Color  and  Its  Applications,"  1915,  or  "The  Language 
of  Color,"  1918,  by  M.  Luckiesh. 


236  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

mary  colored  lights,  when  mixed  in  proper  pro- 
portions make  a  subjective  white  light.  The 
subtractive  primaries  when  mixed  make  black. 
In  other  words,  color-mixture  by  either  method 
tends  toward  a  colorless  result.  The  additive 
mixture  always  tends  toward  white;  that  is, 
tints  generally  result.  The  subtractive  mixture 
tends  toward  black ;  that  is,  shades  generally  re- 
sult. If  in  the  latter  case  white  is  added,  tints 
may  be  obtained.  A  clear  conception  of  this 
relation  is  necessary  if  confusion  is  to  be 
avoided.  Unfortunately,  this  confusion  is 
found  in  the  books  and  other  writings  on  color 
in  decoration  and  painting.  This  phase  of  color 
is  discussed  further  in  a  later  chapter. 


XV 

THE   EXPRESSIVENESS    OF   COLOE 

ANY  lighting  problem  or  effect  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  namely,  distribution, 
and  quality  or  color  of  light.  In  preceding 
chapters  distribution  of  light  has  been  dealt 
with  predominantly,  although  the  possibilities 
of  color  have  cropped  out  occasionally.  This 
manner  of  presenting  the  subject  of  lighting  the 
home  has  been  selected  for  the  sake  of  simplic- 
ity, and  the  discussion  of  tinted  light  has  been 
reserved  for  these  remaining  chapters.  Dis- 
tribution of  light  and  what  we  may  term  the 
distribution  of  values  comprise  the  backbone  of 
lighting,  just  as  brightnesses,  or  light  and 
shade,  are  the  more  important  factors  in  vi- 
sion. We  can  live  happily  and  contentedly 
without  the  gift  of  color-vision,  but  this  marvel- 
ous faculty  reveals  to  conscious  observers  a 
magical  drapery.  So  it  is  in  lighting.  Distri- 
bution of  light  provides  the  values  which 
are  the  foundation  of  lighting  and  of  decora- 

237 


238  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

tive  effects,  but  upon  this  framework  we  may 
apply  the  delightful  charm  and  effectiveness  of 
tinted  light.  The  expressiveness  and  impres- 
siveness  of  color  are  fascinating  subjects  which 
cannot  be  understood  or  utilized  without  dig- 
ging rather  deeply.  In  order  that  the  view  of 
this  may  not  be  superficial,  we  must  devote  some 
space  to  the  deep  sources  from  which  the  poten- 
tiality of  color  has  sprung.  Even  the  space  at 
our  disposal  is  insufficient  to  treat  the  subject 
fully,  but  it  is  hoped  that  this  chapter  and  the 
following  one  will  aid  the  reader  to  extract 
some  of  the  charm  from  color  and  to  use  it  more 
definitely.  These  discussions  are  as  significant 
in  decoration  and  furnishing  as  in  lighting,  but 
despite  its  lack  of  development  in  lighting  ef- 
fects in  the  home,  color  has  many  possibilities 
in  this  field.  The  discussion  of  the  production 
and  utilization  of  color  has  been  reserved  for 
Chapter  XVII. 

Mythology  reveals  the  fact  that  color  im- 
pressed and  influenced  man  early  in  his  evolu- 
tionary progress  up  the  ladder  of  civilization, 
knowledge  and  intelligence.  In  those  early 
centuries  when  human  beings  were  fanciful 
children  and  knew  little  concerning  the  work- 


EXPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOK     239 

ings  of  natural  phenomena,  they  attributed 
powers  to  inanimate  objects  and  to  imaginary 
beings.  They  lived  close  to  Nature,  dependent 
upon  her  bounty  and  subject  to  her  whims.  It 
is  only  natural  that  colors  acquired  certain  at- 
tributes in  those  bygone  centuries  when  fancy 
and  superstition  reigned  supreme.  Doubtless, 
the  attributes  which  colors  were  supposed  to 
possess  were  very  real,  but  even  though  as 
knowledge  increased  they  were  recognized  more 
as  symbolisms  than  innate  powers,  the  con- 
tinued usage  and  consequent  associations  estab- 
lished a  degree  of  signification  for  colors 
similar  to  words.  Even  to-day  certain  super- 
stitions and  fancies  persist,  despite  the  con- 
tradictions of  common  sense  and  even  of  scien- 
tific knowledge. 

One  of  the  difficulties  in  drawing  upon  early 
mythology  is  the  indefmiteness  and  scarcity 
of  color-names.  Apparently,  color-names 
evolved  in  primitive  languages  in  a  general 
order,  such  as  red,  yellow,  green,  blue,  black ;  that 
is,  names  for  red  will  be  found  in  the  most  prim- 
itive languages  in  which  there  are  no  names  for 
the  other  colors.  A  more  civilized  tribe  may 
have  names  for  red  and  yellow,  but  none  for 


240  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

the  others,  and  so  on.  Some  have  concluded 
that  this  represents  the  relative  impressiveness 
of  the  colors,  but  this  is  a  superficial  view. 
Words  are  more  likely  to  owe  their  existence 
to  necessity  than  to  anything  else.  Further- 
more, green,  blue-green,  blue,  and  violet  are 
commonly  confused,  even  to-day;  that  is,  they 
are  not  named  with  the  certainty  and  accuracy 
that  yellow,  orange  and  red  are.  The  scarcity 
of  color-names  is  evident  in  many  early  writ- 
ings; for  example,  the  sky  or  heaven  plays  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Bible,  occurring  in  the 
first  verse  and  in  several  hundred  other  pas- 
sages. Yet  its  blue  color  is  not  mentioned.  In 
the  ten  books  of  Rigveda  hymns  the  earth  is 
frequently  mentioned,  but  a  color-name  for 
green  does  not  appear.  This  is  quite  generally 
true  of  these  ancient  writings. 

Association  plays  a  dominant  role  in  our  edu- 
cation; in  fact,  education  is  a  vast  complex  of 
associations.  We  do  not  ordinarily  recognize 
the  associational  process,  for  it  is  subtle  and 
operates  despite  our  lack  of  consciousness  of  it. 
Throughout  the  numberless  centuries  of  the 
evolution  of  man  it  has  been  at  work,  and  the 
powers  of  color  at  the  present  time  owe  much 


PLATE  VI 


a.  An  "outdoors"  effect  may  be  emphasized  by  appropriate 
lighting. 


b.  A  simple  fixture  which  provides  a  degree  of  variety  in 
•hting  effects  in  the  dining-room.     See  Figures  1  and  14. 


PLATE  VII 


Illustrating  the  wide  range  in  lighting  effects  obtainable  by 
means  of  a  "direct-indirect"  portable.  See  Figure  10.  Such 
fixtures  are  effective  in  the  home. 


EXPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     241 

to  these  associations.  They  began  to  influence 
us  as  individuals  from  the  beginning  of  our 
experience.  Associations  are  of  many  degrees 
of  intimacy,  varying  from  those  which  are 
simple  and  obvious  to  those  in  which  many  com- 
ponents are  blended  in  complexity.  The  power 
of  continued  association  of  colors  with  certain 
things,  environments,  and  experiences  can  be 
amply  illustrated.  In  fact,  few  uses  of  color 
are  free  from  this  influence  and  many  incor- 
rect conclusions  are  arrived  at  by  not  delving 
deeply  enough  to  recognize  the  basic  influence. 
A  red  light  in  certain  environments  is  recog- 
nized as  a  danger  signal;  green  signifies  im- 
mortality; black  indicates  mourning;  and  white 
means  chastity. 

But  there  are  many  pitfalls  for  those  who  are 
not  fortified  with  knowledge  and  a  habit  of  close 
scrutiny.  For  example,  artificial  light  in  light- 
ing is  traditionally  of  a  yellowish  or  warm  color. 
The  habit  arising  from  this  association  through- 
out many  generations  of  a  yellow-orange  tint 
with  the  light  from  such  sources  as  the  camp- 
fire,  the  candle,  and  the  kerosene  flame  is  so 
deeply  rooted  that  discussions  and  appraisals  of 
lighting  are  sometimes  faulty,  owing  to  a  lack 


242  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

of  realization  of  this  influence.  This  habit  is 
so  firmly  established  that  it  is  no  longer  recog- 
nized as  habit.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  per- 
sons to  attribute  various  physiological  effects  to 
the  ' ' white "  light  of  a  tungsten  lamp  (which 
is  far  from  white),  whereas  those  persons  and 
billions  of  their  ancestors  have  lived  without 
chronic  headaches  under  natural  daylight, 
which  is  really  white.  Inasmuch  as  the  light 
from  a  tungsten  lamp  is  yellowish  in  color,  com- 
pared with  daylight,  it  is  obvious  that  the  phy- 
siological disturbances  are  not  due  to  its 
"whiteness,"  if  these  are  not  experienced  under 
daylight. 

The  foregoing  brings  to  mind  an  interesting 
conclusion  based  upon  a  number  of  experiences, 
namely,  that  we  must  contend  with  the  esthetic 
sensibility  as  well  as  the  physiological  sensi- 
bility in  every  person.  In  very  artistic  per- 
sons the  esthetic  sensibility  is  highly  developed 
and  may  cry  out  in  protest  against  a  condition 
or  an  environment,  and  the  complaint  may  be 
erroneously  attributed  to  the  physiological  or- 
ganism. For  example,  a  person  with  a  highly 
developed  esthetic  sensibility  protested  strongly 
against  the  ordinary  whitish  light  of  modern 


EXPRESSIVENESS  OP  COLOR      243 

illuminants  as  used  in  her  studio,  stating  that 
they  caused  headaches  and  made  her  ill,  but  that 
the  warmer  color  of  simulated  candlelight  was 
satisfactory.  From  a  careful  analysis  it  was 
concluded  that  her  esthetic  sensibility  was  so 
dominating  that  any  injury  to  it  reacted  upon 
her  physiological  being.  It  should  be  one  of 
the  functions  of  lighting  to  satisfy  this  esthetic 
side  of  our  dual  beings. 

To  revert  to  the  fundamental  sources  of  the 
powers  of  colors,  let  us  consider  briefly  the  in- 
fluence of  ecclesiastic! sm.  In  bygone  centuries 
the  ecclesiasts  wove  colors  into  their  ceremo- 
nies. They  controlled  religious  painting  and 
largely  specified  the  use  of  colors  in  this  art. 
In  this  manner  colors  acquired  significations 
which  continued  usage  moulded  into  attributes. 
White  became  a  symbol  of  chastity  and  gray 
and  black  denoted  religious  piety.  Red  repre- 
sented martyrdom  of  faith  and  green  signified 
immortality.  Judas  was  garbed  in  yellow, 
from  which,  perhaps,  the  custom  arose  of  paint- 
ing the  abodes  of  felons  yellow.  In  biblical 
paintings  blue  was  emblematic  of  faith,  fidelity 
and  divine  intelligence.  Many  other  definite 
symbolisms  arose  in  the  church.  The  usage 


244  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

was  not  always  definite  and  consistent,  so  the 
analysis  of  this  extensive  field  is  not  easy,  but 
there  is  a  general  consistency  or  uniformity 
which  has  done  much  toward  augmenting  the 
powers  of  colors. 

Nature  has  been  one  of  the  most  fruitful 
sources  of  significations  of  color,  owing  to  the 
close  relation  of  early  man  to  her.  In  this 
age  of  intelligence  there  are  some  unpardonable 
blunders,  such  as  attributing  to  nature  a  su- 
preme skill  in  the  artistic  use  of  color.  Of 
course  our  taste  has  been  influenced  by  the 
magnitude,  the  relations  of  colors  in  nature's 
settings,  the  march  of  the  seasons,  and  the 
marvelous  symphonies  of  sunsets.  The  out- 
doors has  been  a  gallery  of  everchanging  can- 
vases, but  that  colors  have  been  arranged  upon 
the  wings  of  a  butterfly,  or  some  other  small 
object  which  we  seldom  see,  with  a  supreme  ar- 
tistic ability  is  a  delightful  fancy  for  a  child  but 
a  superficial  unphilosophical  conclusion  for  an 
adult.  The  wings  of  a  butterfly  may  be  beauti- 
ful, in  fact,  most  of  them  are,  but  to  assume 
that  they  are  so  colored  to  please  mankind  is 
egotistical,  rather  than  philosophical.  It  may 
be  interesting,  and  even  satisfactory,  to  base 


EXPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     245 

decorative  schemes  upon  such  natural  color 
combinations,  but  to  employ  these  minor  color- 
schemes  of  nature  as  a  fundamental  foundation 
for  decorative  art,  as  some  have  suggested,  is 
senseless.  Our  decorative  art  should  come 
from  within  us,  or  if  nature  is  copied,  we  should 
utilize  those  color-schemes  or  attributes  of 
colors  which  by  their  magnitude  or  obvious- 
ness have  really  influenced  us  all. 

That  nature  has  impressed  mankind  is  shown 
in  the  early  myths  which  were  handed  down  by 
the  story-tellers  of  one  generation  to  another 
until  they  were  recorded  in  writing.  Poets 
have  kept  these  fancies  alive  and  have  added 
more.  They  have  also  used  the  powers  of 
colors  to  enhance  the  beauty  of  these  fancies. 
Poets  are  truly  * '  word-painters. ' '  On  perusing 
poetry  with  the  power  and  usage  of  color  in 
mind,  we  again  discover  a  general  uniformity 
and  consistency,  but  such  a  research  is  an  intri- 
cate one,  because  with  poetic  license  the  words 
have  often  been  disguised  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  poetical  expression.  With  poets  the 
clear  blue  sky  is  often  "the  serene  of  heaven"; 
jealousy  is  clothed  in  yellow;  memory  is  green; 
virginity  is  " white-robed  innocence"  or  as 


246  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

1 ' chaste  as  unsunned  snow";  and  evil  spirits 
are  "  clothed  in  black. "  In  fact,  poetry  is  one 
of  the  most  fruitful  sources  of  color  expression 
and  it  has  done  much  to  standardize  symbolism 
and  to  establish  attributes  or  characteristics  of 
colors.  Surely,  nature  has  affected  throughout 
the  ages  those  observing,  thoughtful,  and  sensi- 
tive individuals  who  have  done  so  much  toward 
the  intellectual  progress  of  mankind. 

The  relations  of  the  dominant  colors  to  the 
seasons,  that  is,  to  the  progress  of  the  year, 
are  appealing  to  the  imagination,  and  similarly 
the  relations  of  light  and  color  to  the  various 
hours  of  the  day  have  not  escaped  the  observa- 
tion of  mankind.  The  conspicuous  and  domi- 
nating color  of  spring,  the  infancy  of  the  year, 
is  green.  It  is  impressive  at  this  time  because 
it  has  followed  months  of  white  and  tertiary 
colors,  and  it  is  dominant  because  it  is  abun- 
dant, fresh,  and  unmixed  with  the  colors  of 
ripened  crops  or  of  scorched  foliage,  as  in  sum- 
mer and  in  autumn.  Thus,  green  consistently 
symbolizes  cheerfulness,  hope,  youth,  freshness, 
inexperience,  and  immaturity.  Summer  is  the 
merging  of  spring  or  youth  into  autumn  or  ma- 
turity, and  colors  become  more  numerous.  It 


EXPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR      247 

is  on  the  quiet  cloudless  day  that  the  sky  most 
powerfully  expresses  serenity,  tranquillity,  con- 
stancy, and  fidelity.  The  association  of  the  sky 
with  heaven  in  early  beliefs  has  connected  with 
it  such  symbolisms  as  intelligence,  generosity 
and  divine  love.  The  darker  shades  of  this 
color  appear  to  possess  the  attributes  of  sedate- 
ness  approaching  melancholy.  Perhaps  this 
arose  from  the  deepening  of  the  blue  sky  of 
approaching  night,  or  from  the  bluish  shade  of 
nature's  solitudes.  The  sky  betrays  the  emo- 
tions of  nature,  and  from  associations  of  sky- 
colors  with  winds  and  weather,  various  sym- 
bolisms have  been  originated  or  strengthened. 

The  green  of  spring  gradually  mellows 
throughout  the  summer  and  more  colors  appear 
until  a  riot  of  color  greets  the  advent  of  autumn. 
These  are  the  colors  of  bountiful  nature.  But 
as  this  season  advances,  the  colors  very  largely 
gravitate  toward  yellow,  gold,  and  rich  browns. 
Now  the  gaiety  of  summer  is  struggling  with  the 
sobriety  of  autumn.  Finally,  these  become 
dulled  to  buffs  and  browns,  as  if  nature  were 
tinged  with  sadness.  These  are  the  "melan- 
choly days"  which  are  so  prominent  in  poetry. 
The  year  has  become  full  grown,  and  this  ma- 


248  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

turity  is  attached  to  the  prevalent  colors.  The 
melancholy  mood  of  autumn  is  not  so  much 
due  to  the  season  as  to  what  we  know  will  fol- 
low. We  sadly  contemplate  the  decay  and 
death  of  the  year  and  the  bleak,  barren  period 
of  unproductiveness  when  nature's  vegetative 
processes  are  dormant  and  her  colors  are  gray 
and  dull.  The  latter  thus  are  associated  with 
old  age,  decrepitude  and  death.  But  time  al- 
leviates this  melancholia,  and  winter  often  in- 
spires gay  moods.  With  its  overcast  leaden 
skies,  it  may  be  depressing  and  sullen,  but  with 
the  sun  playing  upon  its  glistening  mantle  of 
snow,  cheerfulness  reigns  again. 

In  a  manner  analogous  to  that  of  the  seasons, 
dawn,  morning,  sunset,  and  night,  with  their 
characteristic  colors  and  light  effects,  have  in- 
fluenced emotional  man.  Their  expressions  or 
moods  are  largely  due  to  the  powers  of  light 
and  color. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize 
these  powers  in  theatrical  productions  to  en- 
hance the  mood  or  to  increase  the  effectiveness 
of  the  setting.  The  possibilities  have  barely 
been  drawn  upon,  and  unfortunately  the  theatre 
which  is  shackled  by  commercialism  has  closed 


EXPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     249 

the  door  upon  art.  Occasionally  a  production 
indicates  that  the  creative  spirit  in  art  has 
gained  an  entrance,  but  in  general  we  deplore 
the  lack  of  deep  insight  in  regard  to  the  powers 
of  light  and  color  on  the  part  of  those  who  reign 
back  of  the  scenes.  The  painter  has  striven  to 
some  extent  to  employ  color  for  color's  sake, 
and  during  the  present  "new  movement "  there 
have  been  many  sincere  experimenters.  The 
painter  has  been  one  of  the  forces  which  have 
established  a  symbolism  arid  definite  usage  of 
color. 

These  are  some  of  the  influences  which  have 
been  creating  an  expressiveness  and  impressive- 
ness  of  color.  Perhaps  it  is  easiest  to  form  a 
conception  of  the  results  by  considering  some  of 
the  symbolisms  or  attributes  which  colors  have 
attained.  Some  of  these  may  appear  to  be  con- 
tradictory from  this  superficial  view,  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  influences  and 
associations  are  complexly  interwoven  and  that 
color-names  are  inadequate  in  distinguishing 
the  finer  features  of  a  color;  that  is,  they  give 
no  idea  of  the  delicacy  of  tint,  the  depth  of 
shade,  the  purity  of  a  light  or  a  color,  the  bril- 
liancy, or  the  relations  of  one  to  another.  With 


250  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

this  understanding,  a  few  of  the  simple  sym- 
bolisms of  fundamental  colors  may  be  of  inter- 
est. 

Red  has  represented  tragedy,  anger,  cruelty, 
hatred,  power,  war,  and  destruction.  The  red 
flag  has  led  many  warriors  into  battle  as  a  sym- 
bol of  valor,  strength  or  blood.  Satan  has  been 
clothed  in  red  and  black.  In  its  gentler  offices 
it  (usually  a  tint)  has  signified  health,  beauty 
and  love,  and  it  is  the  color  of  the  blush  of  love, 
bashfulness  and  shame. 

Yellow  (sometimes  orange)  represents  light 
and  warmth,  and  in  this  sense  is  gay  and  en- 
livening. Aurora  is  clothed  in  "  saffron 
robes. "  Gold,  owing  to  its  luster  and  value, 
represents  glory  and  power.  Associated  with 
sickness  and  disease,  yellow  is  the  flag  of  quar- 
antine and  a  sanitary  signal.  In  its  impure 
shades  it  has  symbolized  jealousy,  deceit,  cow- 
ardice, treachery,  and  indecency.  It  has  been 
used  to  distinguish  the  abodes  of  criminals  and 
for  the  garments  of  Judas. 

Green  has  represented  vigor,  plenty,  life, 
faith,  hope,  and  immortality.  It  has  symbolized 
victory.  Olive,  a  shade  of  green,  has  repre- 
sented solitude  and  peace.  Green  has  been  in- 


EXPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR      251 

dicative  of  cheerfulness.  With  reference  to  the 
springtime  of  life,  it  signifies  youth  and  inex- 
perience. The  custom  of  strewing  graves  with 
evergreen  is  based  upon  its  significance  of  im- 
mortality, or  "  green  in  memory. " 

Blue  has  been  characterized  as  dignified  and 
soothing,  and  from  its  shadowy  nature  betokens 
sedateness  and  solitude.  It  has  signified 
heaven,  hope,  constancy,  fidelity,  serenity,  gen- 
erosity, intelligence,  wisdom,  and  truth,  doubt- 
less from  associations  with  the  blue  sky  and 
with  the  abode  of  God.  In  liturgy  it  is  sym- 
bolical of  hope,  love  of  divine  works,  a  serene 
conscience,  piety,  and  divine  contemplation.  It 
is  interesting  to  contrast  these  attributes  with 
those  of  red,  for  example. 

Purple,  when  inclined  toward  red,  has  long 
signified  royalty,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  a  re- 
gal and  pompous  color.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  it  actually  became  a  royal  color  because 
originally  a  dye  of  this  color  was  very  costly. 
Continued  usage  has  established  its  regal  re- 
lation. Rose,  pink,  amethyst,  and  most  so- 
called  violets  belong  to  the  purple  family. 
Amethyst  and  violet  have  symbolized  passion, 
love,  truth,  suffering,  and  martyrdom.  Rose 


252  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

and  pink  have  signified  beauty,  love,  health,  and 
hope. 

White  is  symbolical  of  light,  purity,  chastity, 
innocence,  truth,  modesty,  and  peace.  When 
the  attribute  of  physical  weakness  predomin- 
ates, it  is  emblematic  of  femininity,  delicacy  and 
infirmity.  It  is  the  badge  of  untried  manhood. 
The  white  flag  indicates  truce  or  surrender,  and 
the  "white  feather "  denotes  timidity.  The 
fact  that  white  has  been  the  color  used  in  mourn- 
ing in  China  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  the  attitude 
of  the  Chinese  toward  death,  compared  with 
ours. 

Black  is  naturally  opposed  to  white.  It  has 
symbolized  woe,  dread,  gloom,  darkness,  death, 
and,  more  severely,  terror,  horror,  wickedness, 
and  crime.  The  black  flag  of  piracy  bore 
"black  tidings "  to  the  defenseless  schooner. 
Black  has  a  milder  office,  for  in  lighting  it  adds 
depth,  mystery  and  the  infinitude  of  space. 
The  quiet  dark  night  awakens  the  imagination 
to  pleasant  fancies,  or  when  conditions  are 
favorable,  how  easy  it  is  for  the  imagination 
to  populate  the  night  with  grotesque  beings  and 
terrors. 

Gray  partakes  partially  of  the  attributes  of 


EXPEESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     253 

black  and  white.  It  is  the  color  of  piety,  pen- 
ance, humility,  sadness,  age,  and  matured  judg- 
ment. Gray  skies  are  dreary,  and  the  "  twilight 
gray"  of  approaching  night  is  associated  with 
quietude  and  sobriety.  Combinations  of  black 
and  white  naturally  assume  some  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  gray. 

These  are  glimpses  of  the  influences  which 
have  established,  more  or  less  definitely,  many 
attributes  of  colors.  Through  centuries  of 
usage  and  by  common  consent  many  of  these 
may  be  considered  to  be  innate  characteristics 
of  colors.  They  may  be  thought  of  as  existing 
regardless  of  the  presence  of  a  human  being; 
that  is,  colors  may  be  considered  as  self-ex- 
pressive. "When  the  reaction  of  the  human  or- 
ganism to  colors  is  considered,  we  may  think  of 
the  impressiveness  of  color.  This  more  or  less 
arbitrary  or  indefinite  distinction  between  ex- 
pressiveness and  impressivenes  has  been  found 
of  considerable  value  in  the  analysis  of  this  ex- 
tensive field  of  color.1  The  term  "expressive- 
ness" is  applied  when  color  holds  the  center  of 
the  stage;  the  term  " impressiveness "  is  better 
when  we  consider  our  reactions  to  color. 

i  See  footnote,  p.  235. 


XVI 

THE   IMPRESSIVENESS   OF   COLOR 

WE  now  enter  another  field  of  complexities 
which  involves  the  psychological  effects 
of  light.  We  might  omit  this  and  the  preceding 
chapter  and  give  in  their  stead  a  few  simple 
"rules"  for  the  decorative  and  psychological 
use  of  colored  light.  Unfortunately,  there  are 
no  simple  rules,  despite  the  fact  that  such  are 
sometimes  presented.  There  are  underlying 
principles  which  are  fundamental,  but  the  ex- 
treme variety  of  conditions  and  the  variation 
of  taste  combine  to  make  it  impossible  to  formu- 
late simple  rules  after  we  have  had  a  glimpse 
into  the  bottomless  depths  and  the  maze  of  by- 
ways of  the  subject.  For  this  reason  it  has 
been  considered  the  better  plan  to  devote  some 
space  to  a  broad  discussion  of  these  phases  of 
color.  After  all,  those  who  are  to  employ  color 
in  lighting,  in  furnishing,  and  in  decoration 
with  some  degree  of  confidence  and  success 
must  appreciate  the  intricacy  of  the  influences 

254 


IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     255 

and  must  develop  their  esthetic  sensibility. 
The  discussions  which  follow  are  based  upon 
adequate  experiments  by  experienced  scientists 
with  groups  of  representative  persons.  Data 
of  this  sort  are  useless  and  even  misleading  un- 
less obtained  from  large  numbers  of  persons  by 
means  of  properly  conducted  experiments.  It 
would  be  tedious  to  present  experimental  de- 
tails, so  these  will  be  omitted. 

Let  us  first  take  up  the  matter  of  color  prefer- 
ence. It  is  well  known  that  savages  and  young 
children,  alike  in  some  respects,  prefer  the  more 
striking  and  pure  colors.  However,  refined 
taste  demands  tints  and  shades,  or  subdued 
colors  with  occasional  accents  of  pure  hues. 
Here  we  see  civilized  and  uncivilized  beings  at 
opposite  extremes  in  matters  of  taste.  Is  civil- 
ization solely  responsible  for  this  difference  and 
has  it  produced  such  a  change  as  the  foregoing 
indicates?  We  shall  see  that  we  have  still  clung 
to  some  of  our  primeval  preferences.  If  we 
present  a  group  of  colors  consisting  of  pure 
hues,  tints,  and  shades  to  a  large  number  of 
persons  successively  by  various  approved  meth- 
ods and  ask  them  to  choose  the  various  colors 
in  their  order  of  preference,  we  find  that  the 


256  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

pure  hues  are  preferred  to  the  tints  and  shades. 
In  conducting  this  experiment  we  have  asked 
the  subjects  to  view  each  color  separately  (or 
in  comparison  with  another,  depending  upon  the 
method)  and  to  eliminate  associations  such  as 
dress  and  interior  decoration.  Thus  it  is  seen 
that  our  absolute  preference  is  the  same  as  the 
preference  for  pure  colors  displayed  by  primi- 
tive beings,  and  this  is  true  without  regard  to 
the  high  state  of  development  of  our  taste  or  ar- 
tistic sensibility.  Thus,  after  all,  we  are  still 
savages  in  absolute  color  preference. 

There  is  much  to  be  gained  by  analyzing  these 
results.  The  colors  of  our  walls  and  furnish- 
ings indicate  that  we  choose  extremely  opposite 
colors,  namely,  subdued  tints  and  shades,  with 
which  to  live.  Our  absolute  preference,  how- 
ever, is  still  for  pure  hues,  and  this  is  evidenced 
to  some  degree  by  the  colorful  bits  of  ornament 
which  we  have  in  our  surroundings.  However, 
we  are  not  living  with  these  relatively  insignifi- 
cant accents  of  pure  color,  except  for  occasional 
moments.  During  these  glimpses,  or  as  minor 
accents,  they  please  us  very  much,  but  we  live 
with  the  room  as  a  whole,  which  is  subdued  in 
color.  The  discovery  having  been  made  that 


IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     257 

we  still  possess  the  barbaric  liking  for  pure 
colors,  we  may  plan  to  use  them,  but  only  in 
the  manner  in  which  we  like  them.  In  lighting, 
for  example,  we  have  a  greater  opportunity  for 
using  color  to  satisfy  this  "  barbaric "  pleasure 
than  in  decoration  and  furnishings.  We  can 
enjoy  a  spot  or  a  flood  of  colored  light  as  long 
as  we  desire  it,  and  then  by  pressing  a  switch 
we  make  it  disappear.  Thus  we  are  able  to 
have  the  pleasure  of  color  in  lighting  which  we 
must  deny  ourselves  in  decorations  and  furnish- 
ings, because  we  must  live  with  the  latter  con- 
stantly. This  is  another  superiority  of  light- 
ing. 

But  let  us  consider  color  preference  further, 
confining  ourselves  for  the  sake  of  simplicity 
to  experiments  made  with  six  pure  hues  of  com- 
mon colors  and  six  corresponding  tints  and 
shades  of  each  of  these.  The  following  are  the 
results  for  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  young 
men  and  women  (college  students)  approxi- 
mately equally  divided  as  to  sex.  The  mean 
order  of  preference  was  as  follows : 

Rank  Color  Rcvnk  Color 

1  red  3  violet 

2  blue  4  blue  tint 


258  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

Rank  Color  Rank  Color 

5  green  12  yellow 

6  violet   shade         13  red  tint 

7  blue  shade  14  yellow  tint 

8  orange  15  green  tint 

9  violet  tint  16  orange  tint 

10  red  shade  17  orange  shade 

11  green  shade          18  yellow  shade 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  every  case  the  pure 
hue  ranked  above  its  corresponding  tint  and 
shade,  and  that  the  colors  used  most  predomin- 
antly to  live  with  rank  in  general  toward  the 
bottom.  The  pure  colors,  which  we  use  spar- 
ingly and  usually  only  in  small  ornamentation, 
rank  toward  the  top.  This  indicates  that  those 
colors  for  which  we  have  the  strongest  prefer- 
ence we  dare  not  use  to  live  with.  By  introduc- 
ing them  in  lighting,  we  may  have  them  with  us 
when  and  as  long  as  we  desire. 

Although  the  men  preferred  the  blue  more 
than  the  red  and  the  women  the  red  more  than 
the  blue,  the  difference  is  not  great.  However, 
experiments  on  other  groups  of  persons  indicate 
this  same  sex  difference,  but  these  differences 
in  the  foregoing  list  are  not  general  or  great 
enough  to  be  of  interest  here,  with  the  exception 
that  the  women  preferred  tints  to  a  greater  de- 
gree than  the  men  did. 


IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR     259 

It  may  now  be  of  interest  to  summarize  the 
ranks  of  the  pure  hues,  the  tints  and  the  shades 
separately  for  the  entire  group  of  persons. 

Rank  Pure  hues  Tints  Shades 

1  red  blue  violet 

2  blue  violet  blue 

3  violet  red  red 

4  green  yellow  green 

5  orange  green  orange 

6  yellow  orange  yellow 

It  is  seen  that  the  order  of  rank  of  the  tints 
and  shades  is  somewhat  different  than  for  pure 
hues,  but  red,  blue,  and  violet  always  remain  in 
the  upper  half  and  green,  orange,  and  yellow  in 
the  lower  half  of  the  order  of  preference.  In 
other  words,  the  colors  near  the  ends  of  the 
spectrum  rank  generally  higher  than  the  mid- 
spectrum  colors.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  re- 
call that  the  spatial  order  of  colors  in  the  spec- 
trum (or  rainbow)  is  as  follows:  red,  orange, 
yellow,  green,  blue,  violet. 

It  should  be  stated  that  in  dealing  with  light, 
a  "  shade "  is  merely  a  reduction  of  intensity 
and  a  "tint"  is  a  weakening  of  the  pure  hue  by 
the  addition  of  white  light.  With  pigments,  a 
shade  is  obtained  by  adding  black  pigment  and 
a  tint  by  adding  white  pigment. 


260  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

These  data  are  not  presented  with  the  idea 
of  placing  the  esthetics  of  colored  light  or  of 
color  in  decoration  and  furnishings  upon  a 
scientific  basis,  but  to  provide  a  view  of  what 
is  actually  revealed  by  systematic  and  authentic 
experiment.  Psychological  analyses  will  do 
much  toward  providing  sound  reasoning  where 
guesswork  reigns  at  the  present  time,  but  we 
can  never  dispense  with  the  esthetic  sensibility 
as  a  creator  of  artistic  results. 

In  closing  this  discussion  on  color  preference 
it  may  be  well  to  emphasize  that  the  subjects  in 
making  their  choices  chose  for  color's  sake  and 
not  from  the  standpoint  of  what  we  term 
1 '  taste. "  The  colors  about  us  with  which  we 
live  owe  their  use  to  the  dictates  of  our  civilized 
taste.  The  other  type  of  color  preference  is  un- 
influenced, or  influenced  as  little  as  possible  by 
association.  It  is  a  real  measure  of  our  "  abso- 
lute "  preference,  that  is,  of  our  liking  for  the 
colors  themselves.  The  data  presented,  though 
the  results  of  a  specific  experiment,  have  been 
verified  as  well  as  can  be  expected  in  experi- 
ments by  others  with  different  groups  of  sub- 
jects and  under  different  conditions. 

The  results  of  another  experiment  which  in- 


IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR      261 

dicate  certain  psychological  effects  of  colors 
upon  a  large  group  of  persons  are  presented 
as  an  example  of  experimental  attack  of  the 
impressiveness  of  color  in  another  direction. 
Twelve  different  colors  were  classified  as  to 
their  exciting,  tranquillizing  or  subduing  influ- 
ence. The  number  of  subjects  who  were  posi- 
tive as  to  the  influence  of  a  given  color  are  given 
in  appropriate  columns  for  the  particular  color. 
The  definiteness  of  each  of  the  influences  is  in- 
dicated by  the  magnitude  of  the  figure  for  each 
color,  that  is,  by  the  number  of  positive  judg- 
ments. 


Exciting 

Tranquillizing 

Subduing 

influence 

influence 

influence 

Crimson 

41 

0 

10 

Scarlet 

56 

0 

0 

Deep  orange 

59 

0 

0 

Orange  yellow 

55 

6 

0 

Yellow 

53 

6 

0 

Yellow-green 

14 

39 

5 

Green 

28 

32 

0 

Blue-green 

32 

23 

6 

Blue 

11 

21 

30 

Violet-blue 

0 

17 

45 

Violet 

0 

6 

54 

Purple 

3 

1 

48 

This  is  an  experimental  foundation  for  cer- 
tain ideas  which  are  not  uncommon  concerning 
the  affective  values  of  colors.  It  is  seen  that 


262  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

the  colors  from  crimson  to  yellow  are  definitely 
exciting,  and  that  the  colors  from  blue  to  purple 
are  subduing.  The  tranquillizing  or  "neutral" 
colors  are  generally  from  yellow-green  to  violet- 
blue.  Naturally,  there  is  some  overlapping,  be- 
cause without  considerable  experience  and 
training  it  is  difficult  for  one  to  analyze  his  feel- 
ing or  reaction.  In  this  experiment  no  impor- 
tant sex  difference  was  evident. 

If  one  analyzes  his  own  reactions  toward  vari- 
ous colors  viewed  singly  amid  a  neutral  or  black 
environment,  he  is  likely  to  find  some  variation 
in  his  record  from  day  to  day.  However,  in 
general  he  would  arrive  at  conclusions  some- 
what akin  to  the  following: 

Red,  very  exciting,  irritating,  bloody,  passion- 
ate. 

Orange,  hot,  warm,  glowing,  lively,  suffocat- 
ing. 

Yellow,  sickly,  or  extremely  opposite,  such  as 

gay. 

Green,  peaceful,  neutral,  tranquil. 
Blue,  cool,  sedate,  sober. 
Violet,  stern,  hard,  unyielding,  gloomy. 
Purple,  stately,  pompous,  impressive. 
These  may  show  inconsistencies  among  them- 


IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR      263 

selves,  especially  with  respect  to  the  results  of 
color  preference.  However,  it  should  be  noted 
that  this  is  a  more  difficult  problem  for  the  sub- 
ject than  to  choose  between  two  colors.  Fur- 
thermore, in  the  analysis  of  his  mood-reactions 
to  colors  the  subject  is  of  prime  importance  to 
himself,  whereas  in  color  preference  the  color 
is  the  object  of  attention.  It  should  be  noted 
that  a  color  may  possess  objective  beauty,  even 
though  it  may  be  depressing.  It  has  been 
shown  that  when  a  color  is  gazed  upon  steadily 
for  one  minute,  adaptation  and  the  arousal  of 
associations  may  change  its  affective  value. 
Apparently  this  is  not  so  likely  to  happen  with 
pure  colors  as  with  tints  and  shades.  If  the 
absolute  preference  uninfluenced  by  associa- 
tions is  to  be  measured,  it  is  obvious  that  judg- 
ment must  be  rendered  quickly.  If  the  effect 
of  taste  is  to  be  determined,  associations  are 
necessary.  The  comparison  at  least  empha- 
sizes the  intricacy  of  the  psychology  of  color, 
and  this  chapter  will  have  accomplished  its  pur- 
pose if  it  does  no  more  than  reveal  this  com- 
plexity. 

It  is  interesting  to  attempt  to  separate  the 
effects  of  hue  from  those  of  brightness  or  value, 


264  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

but  these  two  elements  of  color  or  light  are  so 
interwoven  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  much  in 
this  direction.  However,  from  a  series  of  neu- 
tral grays  extending  from  white  to  black  an  in- 
dividual will  usually  choose  certain  grays  that 
are  more  agreeable  to  him  than  the  others. 
These  are  usually  values  near  the  middle  of  the 
series.  In  other  words,  white  or  black  would 
be  rarely  chosen  in  preference  to  medium  grays. 
It  is  also  certain  that  colors  are  responsible  to 
a  greater  extent  than  grays  for  sentiments, 
emotions  and  other  affective  elements  of  con- 
sciousness. 

It  is  instructive  to  analyze  color  appreciation, 
or  the  manner  in  which  colors  may  impress  us, 
and  to  provide  a  classification.  Without  such 
an  attempt  we  cannot  progress  far  in  the  under- 
standing and  use  of  color.  Although  it  may 
be  possible  to  provide  a  more  elaborate  division, 
the  following  four  aspects  of  the  impressiveness 
of  color  are  helpful : 

1.  Objective  aspect.  This  applies  to  the 
color  as  an  object,  whether  it  be  primary,  trans- 
mitted or  reflected  light.  We  may  be  influenced, 
for  example,  by  the  richness,  lustre,  delicacy, 
purity,  brightness,  or  muddiness  of  the  object, 


IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR      265 

which  may  be  a  translucent  or  reflecting  sur- 
face. 

2.  Physiological     aspect.     Colors     may     be 
agreeable  or  disagreeable.     This  aspect  may  be 
indicated  by  certain  effects  upon  the  subjects, 
such  as  quickening  of  the  pulse  or  increased 
blood-pressure.     Muscular    activity    has    been 
found  to  be  considerably  greater  under  orange 
and  red  light  than  under  blue  light.     In  fact, 
the  order  of  effectiveness  of  colored  lights  in 
this  respect  was  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  and 
red.    Various  differences  in  the  psychophysio- 
logical  effectiveness  of  colored  lights  have  been 
found  to  depend  upon  the  color. 

3.  Associative  aspect.     This  represents  the 
suggestive  power  of  a  color.     Certainly,  various 
colors  bring  to  mind  different  thoughts   and 
mental  pictures.     The  effects  will  differ  some- 
what with  the  individual,  because  of  varied  past 
experiences,  but  in  general  there  is  a  similarity 
of  associations  aroused  by  a  color  for  a  group 
of  subjects  of  the  same  nationality  and  station. 

4.  Character  aspect.     This  includes  the  ex- 
pression by  a  color  of  that  which,  in  the  case  of 
a  human  being,  would  be  considered  his  mood, 
character  or  temperament.    It  involves  the  ex- 


266  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

pressiveness  of  a  color  and  the  ability  of  a  per- 
son to  interpret  it.  It  represents  the  most  com- 
plex aspect  and  the  most  powerful  characteris- 
tic of  colof ;  those  who  sense  this  aspect  are 
blessed  with  the  highest  form  of  color  apprecia- 
tion. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  a  distinction  between 
" agreeable "  and  "beautiful."  When  a  color 
(or  any  object  or  decorative  scheme)  is  agree- 
able, we  occupy  the  center,  but  when  it  is  beau- 
tiful, the  color  occupies  the  focus  of  our  atten- 
tion. The  taste,  intellect,  past  experience,  es- 
thetic sensibility,  etc.,  of  human  beings  deter- 
mine which  of  these  aspects  of  color  is  likely 
to  be  most  effective.  According  to  the  fore- 
going plan  of  classification,  the  physiological  as- 
pect appears  to  be  of  the  lowest  esthetic  value 
and  the  objective  aspect  ranks  next.  The  as- 
sociational  aspect  follows  in  importance,  and 
the  character  aspect  occupies  the  highest  place 
in  the  scale  of  esthetic  values.  An  appreciation 
of  the  " character"  of  color,  lighting,  decorative 
schemes,  and  fixtures  is  an  assurance  of  the 
possession  of  a  well  developed  esthetic  sensi- 
bility. 

In  appraising  the  appeal  or  affective  value  of 


IMPEESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR      267 

a  colored  light,  it  should  be  obvious  that  there 
are  many  pitfalls.  There  are  two  general  ways 
of  judging  a  colored  light.  One  is  to  direct  the 
attention  at  the  light-source,  which  may  be  a 
colored  shade  or  other  definite  object,  or  it  may 
be  a  patternless  ceiling  illuminated  by  concealed 
sources.  The  other  way  is  to  judge  the  appear- 
ances of  the  familiar  objects  which  the  colored 
light  illuminates.  In  the  first  case  one  is  ap- 
praising the  light-source,  and  in  the  other  the 
effect  of  the  light  upon  objects.  The  effect 
upon  the  setting  as  a  whole,  without  considera- 
tion of  details  such  as  the  appearance  of  spe- 
cific objects,  may  be  of  prime  importance  in 
general  lighting,  but  the  appearance  of  the  light- 
ing unit  is  of  chief  interest  in  those  cases  when 
the  colored  light  is  used  as  a  vital  spark  of 
ornament.  A  colored  light  is  more  likely  to  be 
judged  according  to  the  appearances  of  the 
familiar  objects  under  it,  whereas  an  ordinary 
object  of  this  color  is  not  generally  judged  in 
this  manner,  because  its  color  is  not  illuminat- 
ing appreciably  other  objects.  For  example, 
let  us  assume  an  entire  room  lighted  with  green 
light.  The  scene  now  has  the  appearance  of  a 
monochrome,  which  in  itself  might  be  a  pleasing 


268  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

novelty,  but  suppose  a  human  face  appeared 
under  this  green  light.  The  face  would  appear 
ghastly,  and  under  most  circumstances  the  green 
light  would  be  condemned.  On  removing  the 
object  which  provoked  this  judgment,  the  light- 
ing may  again  appear  agreeably  novel. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  do  not  cover  this 
interesting  field  of  color,  but  it  is  hoped  that 
they  have  given  the  reader  an  idea  of  its  com- 
plexity and  that  he  will  be  aided  in  viewing  the 
problems  of  color  more  deeply  and  from  more 
sides.  Every  visual  impression  may  be  a  cause 
of  a  mental  reaction,  although  the  effectiveness 
of  visual  stimuli  in  this  respect  is  largely  de- 
pendent upon  the  state  of  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  the  individual.  It  is  likely  to  depend 
upon  the  ability  of  the  being  to  observe  and  to 
react.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  this  chapter 
colors  have  been  considered  individually;  how- 
ever, these  characteristics  may  be  altered  when 
colors  are  used  in  combination  with  other  colors. 
In  other  words,  the  appearance  and  consequent 
effectiveness  of  a  color  is  influenced  by  its  en- 
vironment. For  example,  the  light  from  an  in- 
candescent filament  lamp  at  night  may  appear 
white,  but  by  day  and  in  contrast  with  daylight 


IMPRESSIVENESS  OF  COLOR      269 

it  is  yellowish.  In  a  room  lighted  solely  by 
orange  or  red  light,  for  example,  one  soon  be- 
becomes  less  aware  of  the  color  of  the  light. 
In  fact,  after  a  time  the  light  will  appear  far 
less  colorful,  or  even  colorless.  However,  on 
lighting  a  lamp  of  another  color,  even  though 
it  be  a  mere  speck  of  light,  one  becomes  imme- 
diately aware  of  the  original  color. 

Much  has  been  done  with  color  in  other  fields 
and  much  knowledge  has  been  gained  as  to  its 
use  and  its  effectiveness.  However,  there  still 
are  extensive  unexplored  unknowns  in  all  these 
fields,  and  we  have  barely  crossed  the  boundary. 
The  application  of  colored  light  is  fascinating 
and  full  of  promise. 


XVII 

COLORED   LIGHT 

ONE  reason  for  reserving  this  aspect  of 
lighting  for  these  closing  chapters  is  be- 
cause it  is  the  least  developed.  However,  the 
charm  of  colored  light  in  residence  lighting  is 
just  as  real  and  potential  as  is  the  charm  in  the 
painted  masterpiece  or  in  the  decorator's  art. 
How  can  we  justify  the  lack  of  use  of  colored 
light  any  more  than  the  elimination  of  color 
from  interior  decoration?  Fundamentally, 
color  in  some  respects  is  of  greater  potentiality 
in  lighting  than  in  other  fields,  but  its  applica- 
tion has  been  inhibited  by  the  difficulty  experi- 
enced in  obtaining  desired  equipment.  The 
easiest  way  to  obtain  colored  light  is  by  means 
of  colored  incandescent  filament  lamps,  but 
these  are  not  readily  available  at  the  present 
time.  They  can  be  made  without  difficulty,  but 
dealers  have  not  arranged  to  supply  them.  In- 
cidentally, "  colored "  light  does  not  necessarily 
mean  light  of  a  pure  color ;  in  fact,  tinted  light 

270 


COLORED  LIGHT  271 

is  in  general  more  appropriate  and  desirable. 
However,  there  are  many  uses  of  the  purer 
colors  as  interesting  notes,  accents  or  symbols. 
The  uses  of  colored  light  should  be  based  upon 
Chapters  XV  and  XVI  and  upon  the  principles 
of  harmony. 

There  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  we 
are  on  the  verge  of  a  new  era  of  lighting  in 
which  colored  light  will  play  a  prominent  part. 
In  fact,  there  are  many  indications  that  the 
11  music  of  light "  is  beginning  to  appeal  to 
serious  and  sincere  creative  persons.  The 
greatest  possibilities  of  this  art  will  not  be 
found  in  the  home,  but  here  is  a  field  for  modest 
achievements.  Inasmuch  as  the  householder  at 
the  present  time  must  experience  some  trouble 
or  must  exercise  his  ingenuity  to  obtain  colored 
light,  a  brief  discussion  of  simple  means  for  pro- 
ducing it  will  be  presented.  In  order  to  under- 
stand how  to  produce  colored  screens  or  to  com- 
bine colored  media  to  obtain  the  desired  tints, 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  composition 
of  light  and  the  principles  of  color  which  are 
involved. 

Light  must  be  considered  to  be  composite  in 
character;  for  example,  the  light  from  the  sun 


272  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

or  an  incandescent  filament  consists  of  many 
colored  rays,  such  as  violet,  blue,  green,  yellow, 
orange,  and  red.  The  combined  effect  of  all 
these  rays  is  white  light  in  the  case  of  noon 
sunlight  or  yellowish  white  in  the  case  of  the 
tungsten  lamp.  If  we  wish  to  obtain  a  red 
light,  it  is  only  necessary  to  get  rid  of  the  other 
rays.  We  may  surround  the  lamp  with  a  cap 
of  "red"  glass — we  call  it  red  because  it  trans- 
mits only  the  red  rays.  Thus  we  obtain  colored 
light  by  subtracting  the  other  rays  from  the 
white,  or  approximately  white,  light.  If  we  de- 
sire a  tint  of  red,  we  make  the  red  glass  thinner 
or  less  "colorful."  The  same  principle  applies 
to  the  other  colors,  with  the  exception  of  the 
purples  which  do  not  exist  as  fundamental  com- 
ponents of  light.  However,  purples  consist  of 
red  and  blue  (or  violet)  rays,  and  therefore  if 
we  find  a  substance  which  transmits  only  the 
red  and  blue  (or  violet)  rays,  we  obtain  purple 
light.  The  "purples"  comprise,  perhaps,  the 
most  beautiful  family  of  colors,  for  tints  of  pur- 
ple are  rose,  lavender,  pink,  mulberry,  and  sim- 
ilar colors,  depending  upon  the  relative  amounts 
of  the  red  and  blue  (or  violet)  components  and 
the  saturation  or  purity. 


COLOEED  LIGHT  273 

Most  lamp  colorings  are  made  with  dyes  and 
are  not  very  permanent  under  the  action  of 
heat  and  light.  Lamp-dealers  or  stage-electri- 
cians have  these  colorings,  and  tinted  lamps 
may  be  obtained  if  the  householder  will  take  the 
trouble  to  have  them  colored.  These  superficial 
colorings  usually  consist  of  varnishes  or  cellu- 
lose lacquers  in  which  dyes  have  been  dissolved. 
If  the  emulsion  on  photographic  films  be  re- 
moved by  scraping  after  immersion  in  water, 
they  can  then  be  dissolved  in ." banana  oil"  or 
ether  and  alcohol.  This  lacquer  may  be  colored 
with  commercial  dyes,  and  a  lamp  coloring  is 
thus  available.  Collodion  and  various  lacquers 
may  be  readily  purchased.  Ordinary  varnish 
may  also  be  dyed.  Dry  pigments  of  high  trans- 
parency, such  as  the  lakes,  may  be  used  in  var- 
nish or  even  in  shellac.  These  colorings  may 
be  fairly  permanent  on  vacuum  tungsten  lamps, 
but  they  will  not  withstand  the  heat  of  the  gas- 
filled  lamps.  Lamps  with  colored  glass  bulbs 
may  be  obtained,  but  at  the  present  time  these 
are  of  deep  colors. 

Colored  screens  or  filters  are  less  convenient 
to  use,  but  they  are  not  difficult  to  make. 
Colored  glass  can  be  obtained,  if  one  knows 


274  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

where  to  look  for  it.  If  a  photographic  film  or 
plate  be  "fixed"  without  developing,  a  basis  for 
a  colored  filter  is  obtained.  After  this  has  been 
thoroughly  washed,  it  may  be  colored  by  placing 
it  in  a  dish  containing  water  which  has  been 
colored  by  means  of  an  ordinary  commercial 
dye.  The  depth  of  color  depends  upon  the  con- 
centration of  the  solution  of  the  dye,  and  it  may 
be  reduced  by  washing  in  cold  water.  The 
colored  solution  may  consist  of  more  than  one 
dye,  if  necessary,  to  obtain  the  desired  color. 
Sheets  of  colored  gelatine  may  be  obtained  from 
stage-electricians  or  supply-houses.  These,  or 
the  dyed  photographic  films,  may  be  made  in 
cylindrical  or  other  forms  to  surround  the  light- 
sources  or  to  cover  the  apertures  of  reflectors. 
Certain  colored-glass  fittings,  such  as  the  caps 
used  over  lamps  in  electric-signs,  may  be  ob- 
tained. Illuminating  glassware  of  various  tints 
is  available,  but  in  order  to  modify  all  the  light, 
it  is  necessary  to  cover  the  apertures  of  the 
shades  or  to  surround  the  light-sources  with 
colored  screens.  Parchment  shades  may  be 
tinted  with  water-colors.  Silk  shades  are  not 
difficult  to  make,  and  if  they  are  properly  de- 
signed, delightful  tints  may  be  obtained.  For 


COLORED  LIGHT  275 

example,  if  a  rose  tint  is  desired,  a  cylinder  can 
be  made  of  one  or  two  layers  of  silk  of  the  de- 
sired color.  The  light  which  escapes  directly 
from  the  source  is  untinted.  This  is  satisfac- 
tory for  many  cases,  for  it  is  usually  desirable 
to  have  the  direct  downward  light  untinted  and 
the  diffused  light  tinted.  However,  if  the 
shades  are  not  lined  with  white,  but  are  of  the 
rose  color,  the  light  reflected  by  them  is  slightly 
colored.  In  a  similar  manner,  if  a  warm  tint 
is  desired  from  a  portable  lamp,  silk  of  the 
proper  color  may  be  used  for  the  shade.  If  the 
downward  light  is  to  be  mellowed  in  tone,  the 
orange  colored  surface  of  the  textile  is  used 
for  the  inner  lining.  This  also  applies  to  the 
ceiling  of  a  room,  for  if  it  is  of  a  warm  tint, 
the  light  reflected  by  it  will  be  tinted  with  the 
same  color.  In  this  manner  some  tinting  of  or- 
dinary light  may  be  obtained  by  the  indirect 
component  which  is  diffusely  reflected  from  the 
ceiling.  In  fact,  it  is  often  possible  to  obtain 
the  desired  tint  by  reflection  of  light  from  a 
colored  surface.  Silk  fibers  are  fairly  trans- 
parent, so  this  is  a  satisfactory  material  to  use 
for  tinting  and  diffusing  light.  It  may  be  used 
to  surround  a  light-source,  to  cover  the  aper- 


276  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ture  of  a  shade,  and  in  other  obvious  ways. 
Besides  superficially  colored  lamps,  the  ordin- 
ary incandescent  filament  lamps  afford  a  slight 
variety  of  color.  The  light  from  the  carbon 
filament  lamp  is  considerably  yellower  than  that 
from  the  tungsten  lamp.  The  latter  is  yellower 
than  the  light  from  the  gas-filled  tungsten  lamp, 
and  this  in  turn  is  yellower  than  that  from  the 
"daylight"  lamp.  The  latter,  by  contrast  with 
any  of  the  others,  is  bluish.  If  it  is  recognized 
that  contrast  is  the  life  of  color,  it  is  seen  that 
these  lamps  afford  some  variety  of  tinted  light. 
However,  there  is  an  insistent  demand  for  an 
illuminant  simulating  the  color  of  the  old  illum- 
inants.  Many  experiments  in  the  home  have 
been  made  with  such  an  illuminant  and  the  effect 
is  generally  charming.  The  colored  lights  for 
general  illumination  in  the  home  should  be  of 
light  tints  and  should  do  their  work  subtly. 
Such  an  illuminant  is  the  light  from  an  incan- 
descent filament  lamp  tinted  to  match  the  color 
of  the  Oandle-flame.  Its  color  is  felt,  rather 
than  seen.  The  future  is  certain  to  witness  the 
introduction  of  tinted  lamps,  for  the  house- 
holder will  demand  them  when  he  has  sensed 
their  charm.  There  are  places  for  lights  of  the 


COLORED  LIGHT  277 

purer  colors  in  the  home,  but  they  are  for  spots 
of  light  or  for  a  novel  effect  to  be  used  occasion- 
ally. 

In  order  to  use  colored  light  in  the  production 
of  satisfactory  color  effects,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  that  in  mixing  lights  the  primary  colors 
are  red,  green  and  blue,  as  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter XIV.  Red  light  mixed  with  green  light  pro- 
duces yellow;  red  and  blue  make  purple;  green 
and  blue  make  blue-green;  and  red,  green  and 
blue  lights  mixed  in  proper  proportions  produce 
white.  In  fact,  by  varying  the  proportions  of 
these  primary  colors  thousands  of  colored 
lights  which  vary  in  hue,  tint  and  intensity  may 
be  produced.  When  the  extreme  variety  of  ef- 
fects is  desired,  red,  green  and  blue  lights  should 
be  arranged  so  that  they  will  mix  and  so  that 
their  proportions  can  be  controlled  by  rheostats 
or  dimmers. 

There  are  various  expediencies  which  border 
upon  this  fundamental  principle  of  addition  of 
colored  lights.  For  example,  if  a  red  glass  is 
available,  a  beautiful  pink  light  may  be  ob- 
tained by  placing  pieces  of  this  glass  over  a 
diffusing  glass,  that  is,  by  arranging  them  like 
a  checkerboard.  In  this  manner  the  red  light, 


278  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

passing  through  the  pieces  of  red  glass,  is 
mixed  with  the  uncolored  light  passing  between 
these  pieces,  with  a  resultant  pink  light.  The 
same  principle  applies  to  other  colored  media. 
A  patterned  silk  fabric  stretched  across  the  top 
of  a  "  semi  -indirect "  bowl  containing  clear 
lamps  operates  in  this  manner,  and  it  will  often 
produce  an  opalescent  effect  upon  the  ceiling. 
An  advantage  of  textiles  is  that  their  external 
color  when  the  lamps  beyond  them  are  not 
lighted  may  be  far  different  than  that  produced 
by  transmitted  light.  For  example,  a  shade 
may  consist  of  an  inner  lining  of  white  and  an 
outer  covering  of  gray  silk.  This  shade  will  ap- 
pear gray  when  the  lamp  within  is  unlighted, 
but  if  a  pink  layer  lies  between  the  inner  and 
outer  layers,  the  color  by  transmitted  light  will 
be  pink.  In  obtaining  the  desired  color  by  us- 
ing more  than  one  layer  of  a  textile  such  as  silk, 
the  subtractive  principle  of  color-mixture  should 
be  appreciated.  Usually  it  is  necessary  to  use 
more  than  one  layer  of  cloth  in  order  to  obtain 
the  desired  density  and  often  to  obtain  the  de- 
sired color.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  accu- 
rately the  resultant  color  of  combinations  of 
fabrics  as  seen  by  transmitted  light,  owing  to 


COLORED  LIGHT  279 

the  indefiniteness  of  color-names.  However, 
the  following  may  give  an  idea  of  some  of  the 
possibilities : 

Combination  of  layers  Approximate  result 

Canary  yellow  and  pink         Warm  yellow  or  orange 

Green  and  pink  Gray  (greenish  or  pinkish) 

Red  and  yellow  Red 

Mulberry  and  yellow  Rose  or  red 

Blue  and  yellow  Gray  (bluish  or  yellowish) 

Blue  and  green  Blue-green 

Blue  and  red  Gray    (purplish) 

Green  and  yellow  Yellow-green 

The  results  always  tend  toward  gray,  and  the 
residual  hue  depends  upon  which  color  of  the 
pair  is  dominant. 

The  applications  of  colored  light  in  the  home 
are  so  dependent  upon  conditions  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  make  specific  recommendations.  In. the 
dining-room,  if  a  fixture  such  as  that  illustrated 
in  Figure  17  and  18  is  available,  a  delightful 
effect  is  obtained  by  using  a  "  daylight "  lamp 
for  the  controlled  downward  component  and 
small  ordinary  lamps  for  the  upward  light  which 
is  diffused  over  the"  room.  The  latter  lamps 
may  be  tinted  as  desired,  or  a  colored  screen 
may  be  placed  over  the  top  of  the  bowl.  If  the 
fixture  is  such  that  deep  silk  or  parchment 


280  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

shades  may  be  used  to  surround  the  lamps,  the 
tint  may  be  easily  controlled.  The  shades  of  a 
shower  should  be  chosen  with  color  effect  in 
mind.  A  cove,  such  as  is  illustrated  in  Figure 
54,  may  be  run  around  the  room  with  two  cir- 
cuits supplying  deep  orange  and  blue  lamps  re- 
spectively. The  ceiling  of  the  dining-room  may 
be  illuminated  from  these  concealed  sources, 
either  orange  or  blue  alone,  and  the  combined 
effect  will  be  rose. 

An  artificial  skylight  in  the  ceiling  of  the 
dining-room  has  already  been  mentioned. 
Above  such  a  decorative  panel,  which  can  be  as 
large  as  desired,  red,  green  and  blue  lamps 
may  be  installed.  If  these  are  controlled  by 
dimmers,  all  the  charming  effects  of  moonlight, 
sunlight,  sunset  colors,  and  many  other  effects 
may  be  obtained.  In  the  more  pretentious  resi- 
dences such  a  lighting  accessory  is  quite  justi- 
fiable, and  the  effects  can  always  be  artistic. 
One  advantage  of  installing  such  an  accessory 
in  the  dining-room  is  that  it  is  used  so  little 
that  it  does  not  become  tiresome.  This  is  a 
caution  applicable  to  any  lighting  which  is  con- 
spicuously colored.  It  may  be  a  pleasing 
novelty  for  a  short  time,  but  it  will  not  last  like 


COLORED  LIGHT  281 

the  subdued  tints  which  we  have  learned  to 
choose  for  interior  decoration  to  live  with  con- 
stantly. 

If  candlesticks  are  to  be  used  upon  the  dining- 
table,  they  should  be  chosen  with  silk  shades  of 
proper  tints,  because  some  of  the  transmitted 
light  is  diffused  to  the  faces  of  the  diners. 
Delicate  pink,  warm  yellow  (not  canary),  and 
even  subdued  deep  orange  are  quite  satisfac- 
tory. 

In  the  living-room  the  shades  of  the  portables 
may  provide  the  desired  tints,  and  in  choosing 
the  parchment,  silk  or  art  glass  shades  this 
should  be  borne  in  mind.  If  portable  lamps 
with  indirect  components  are  available,  this  in- 
verted reflector  may  be  tinted  the  desired  color 
or  lined  with  tinted  asbestos.  The  light  reflec- 
ted by  this  colored  surface  will  be  tinted,  and 
this,  combined  with  the  unaltered  light  which 
escapes  upward  directly  from  the  lamp,  will  re- 
sult in  a  slightly  colored  indirect  component. 
This  may  be  further  mellowed  by  reflection  from 
the  ceiling,  if  the  latter  is  of  a  marked  tint. 
A  screen  of  silk  may  be  placed  over  the  top  of 
the  inverted  reflector  to  obtain  this  result. 

A  tinted  lamp  in  a  translucent  vase  or  in  any 


282  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

ornament  may  provide  an  interesting  note. 
When  all  these  lamps  are  lighted  they  should 
produce  a  color  harmony,  but  this  does  not  mean 
that  they  must  all  be  alike.  The  same  princi- 
ples of  harmony  of  color  apply  to  colored  lights 
as  to  the  use  of  color  in  interior  decoration. 
There  may  be  a  dominant  color  accented  by 
complementaries  from  the  smaller  lamps,  or 
there  may  be  a  charming  group  of  closely  re- 
lated colors.  The  shades  or  wall-brackets  may 
consist  of  almost  totally  enclosing  parchment, 
silk  or  glass  shades  tinted  to  produce  the  dom- 
inant color  desired.  Besides  these  regular  fix- 
tures, there  are  many  novelties  which  may  be 
introduced,  but  these  depend  upon  the  particu- 
lar opportunities  and  the  ingenuity,  taste  and 
persistence  of  the  householder. 

In  vestibules,  reception-halls,  and  stairways 
deeper  notes  of  color  may  be  obtained  by  means 
of  enclosing  units  such  as  panelled  lanterns, 
ceiling-bowls  or  silk  shades.  These  are  safe 
places  for  such  accents,  because  the  lighting 
units  may  be  operated  for  only  a  short  time  or 
their  isolation  permits  of  the  use  of  a  more 
powerful  note.  If  serious  thought  is  given  to 
this  aspect  of  lighting,  many  simple  expedi- 


COLORED  LIGHT  283 

encies  will  occur  to  the  householder.  Despite 
the  fact  that  at  present  it  is  necessary  to  exer- 
cise ingenuity,  it  is  possible  to  introduce  much 
of  the  charm  of  colored  light  into  the  home. 

The  principles  of  color  harmony  rule  in  light- 
ing as  in  other  fields,  but  the  possibilities  of 
colored  light  extend  beyond  those  of  color  in 
decoration.  The  same  color  harmonies  may  be 
obtained,  but  the  superior  advantages  of  a  mo- 
bile medium  such  as  light  are  obvious.  Colored 
light  may  be  used  for  its  expressive  value  or  for 
its  psychological  effect.  Sometimes  the  color 
serves  as  a  vital  spark  to  emphasize  the  tint  of 
the  general  light;  at  other  times  its  function 
may  be  to  appeal  occasionally  to  our  liking  for 
pure  colors.  Light  to  live  with  should  be  tinted 
so  that  the  color  is  felt  rather  than  seen;  that 
is,  it  provides  atmosphere  without  forcing  it- 
self upon  us  as  a  color.  Light  is  the  most 
powerful  medium  we  have  for  creating  or  ac- 
centuating the  mood  of  a  room.  It  is  easy  to 
control  its  distribution  and  color  and  to  alter 
the  effect  at  will.  In  a  room  equipped  with  the 
necessary  controls  the  succession  of  lighting  ef- 
fects and  consequent  moods  or  expressions  as 
the  switches  are  manipulated  by  a  lighting  art- 


284  LIGHTING  THE  HOME 

1st  is  a  marvelous  exhibition  of  the  powers  of 
light.  The  householder  may  enjoy  the  poten- 
tiality of  lighting  in  accordance  with  the  atten- 
tion which  he  gives  the  subject.  The  most  for- 
midable obstacles  are  indifference  toward  light- 
ing and  a  narrow  view  of  its  possibilities.  At- 
tention to  apparently  insignificant  details  of 
lighting  equipment  does  much  toward  convert- 
ing a  house  into  a  home. 


INDEX 


Adam,  181 

Adaptation  of  eye.  53,  56 

Affective  value  of  color,  262 

Ampere,  219 

Antique,   168 

Antiquity,  188 

Appreciation  of  color,  264  et 

seq. 

Association  and  color,  240 
Architect,  50,  95 
Art  and  commercialism,  186 
Artificial  skylight:    197,  200; 

window,  197 
Artistic  sensibility,  44 

Basement  outlets,  140,  148 
Bathroom    outlets,    122,    140, 

147 

Beauty,  76 

Bedroom:   119;  outlets,  146 
Brightness    and   illumination, 

226 

Black,  symbolism  of,  252 
Blue,  symbolism  of,  251 
Books:    "Artificial  Light,   Its 
Influence      Upon      Civiliza- 
tion,"   21;    "Color    and    Its 
Applications,"   235;    "Light 
and    Shade   and   Their   Ap- 
plications," 227;  "The  Lan- 
guage of  Color,"  235;  "The 
Lighting  Art,"  152 
Brackets,  79,  90,  100,  120,  122 
et  seq. 

285 


Brightness:  53,  75;  and  illu- 
mination, 226;  of  light- 
sources,  55 

Builder,  95 

Candelabra,  103 

Candle:  power,  223;  sticks, 
101 

Carbon  filament,  207 

Ceiling  fixtures,  83,  95 

Chippendale,  180 

Closet,  121 

Combining  fabrics,  278 

Concealed:  lighting,  70,  81, 
191;  light-sources,  192  et 
seq. 

Contractor,  electrical,  131 

Contrast,  54 

Colonial,  184 

Color:  26,  48,  93,  112,  115, 
193,  199 ;  affective  value  of, 
262;  appreciation  of,  264  et 
seq.;  expressiveness  of,  237 
et  seq.;  impressiveness  of, 
254  et  seq.;  preference,  255 
et  seq.;  purity  of,  233;  sat- 
uration of,  233;  seasonal, 
246;  symbolism  of,  243; 
and  association,  240;  and 
Nature,  244;  and  poetry, 
245;  -mixture,  277;  -names, 
239;  -terms,  232;  -vision,  16 

Colored  light,  270  et  seq. 

Coloring  materials,  275  et  seq. 


286 


INDEX 


Commercialism  and  art,  186 
Complementary  colors,  233 
Composition  of  light,  271 
Cornice,  70,  77,  197 
Cost:   of  light,  7  et  seq.,  133, 

142,  205,  221;    of  living,  7 

et  seq. 

Cove,  70,  115,  191,  280 
Current,  219 

Daylight,  30,  52;  window,  58, 

177;    lamp,    112,    121,    124, 

215 

Decoration,  27,  40 
Decorative :  fixtures,  96 ;  light, 

36;  scheme,  44 
Decorator,  35,  50 
Demonstration  of  lighting, 

100,  133 

Den:  118;  outlets,  147 
Diffused  light,  228 
Dimming  devices,  205 
Dining-room:   35,  98;   fixture, 

special,  111  et  seq.;  outlets, 

137,    145 
Dining-table,  99 
Distribution  of  light,  26,  75, 

77 

Dome,  107  et  seq. 
Dressing-table,  120 

Eeclesiasticism,  243 
Edison,  6 
Egyptian,  166 
Electrical-contractor,  50 
Electro-magnetic  energy,  230 
Elizabethan,  180 
Empire,  175 

Entrance:   124;  outlets,  145 
Expressiveness:   of  color,  237 


et  seq.;  of  light,  22,  23,  30 
Eyes,  immature,  57 
Eye-strain,  53 

Fabrics,  278 

Fixtures:  17,  22,  34,  72,  76; 
Adam,  181;  appraising  of, 
79 ;  as  ornaments,  65 ;  art 
and  science  in,  65;  bracket-, 
54;  candle-,  175;  ceiling-, 
83;  Colonial,  184;  decora- 
tive, 54;  dining-room,  98  et 
seq.;  direct-indirect,  69;  di- 
rect-lighting, 68;  dome,  107 
et  seq.;  Elizabethan,  180; 
Empire,  178;  functions  of, 
64;  Georgian,  181;  glaring, 
58;  Gothic,  173;  indirect, 
68,  74;  inverted  bowl,  104; 
luminous  bowl,  73 ;  novelties 
in,  49;  portable,  162;  Re- 
naissance, 175;  semi-indi- 
rect, 68;  shades  for,  80; 
two-circuit,,  47;  types  of, 
66;  wall  boxes,  115 

Fixture:  dealer,  50,  133;  man- 
ufacturer, 50 

Flasher,  205 

Floor-area,  and  outlets,  95 

Flower-box,  77,   119,   192 

Foot-candle,  224 

French  Renaissance,   175 

Frosted   lamps,    103,   216 

Fruit-closet,  126 

Fuel-bin,  126 

Furnishings,  44,  47 

Furniture,  arrangement  of, 
127 

Garage,  outlets,  148 


INDEX 


287 


Gas:   -filled  lamp,  212;   light- 
ing, 20;  mantle,  6 
George  II,   181;   III,   181 
Glare,  53,   60,  83,  97,   126 
Glossy  paper,  57 
Gothic:    172;   fixtures,  173 
Green,  symbolism  of,  250 
Grecian,  167 
Grey,  symbolism  of,  252 

Hall,  123 

Harmony:    76;   of  color,  283 
Henry  IV,  174 
Hepplewhite,   180 
House-number,  124,  204 
Hue,  232 

Illumination:  and  brightness, 
226;  insufficient,  56;  inten- 
sity of,  224 

Impressiveness  of  color,  254  et 
seq. 

Incandescent  lamps,  6,  87,  207 

Indirect  lighting,  33 

Infra-red,  231 

Intensity:  of  ilumination,  56, 
224;  of  lighting,  49;  of 
light-sources,  223 

Inverted  bowl,  104 

Kilowatt:   221;   -hour,  221 
Kitchen:  78,  123;  outlets,  146 

Lamps:  color  of,  276;  day- 
light, 112,  121,  124;  diffus- 
ing, 216;  dresser,  120; 
frosted,  103,  216;  gas-filled, 
212;  incandescent,  6,  87; 
luminous  output  of,  214; 


miniature,  102;  oil,  166; 
vacuum,  212 

Landscapes,  30 

Laundry,  125,  140 

Library,  118 

Light:  colored,  270  et  seq.; 
composition  of,  271;  cost  of, 
7  et  seq,  205,  221;  deco- 
rative, 36;  definition  of, 
230;  distribution  of,  26,  75, 
77;  expressiveness  of,  22, 
23,  30;  intensity  of,  49; 
laws  of,  43 ;  mobility  of,  85 ; 
primitive,  5;  production  of, 
208  et  seq.;  psychology  of, 
94;  quantity  of,  56,  224; 
spectrum  of,  15 ;  tinted,  48 ; 
white,  242 

Lighting:  artist,  3,  7,  43; 
concealed,  70,  81,  191;  cor- 
nice, 70;  cost  of,  133,  142 
et  seq.;  cove,  70,  191;  di- 
rect, 67 ;  direct-indirect,  69 ; 
effects,  17,  46,  79;  in  Na- 
ture, 42;  importance  of,  8; 
indirect,  33,  68,  74;  novel- 
ties in,  190  et  seq.;  picture, 
201;  progress,  49,  129; 
semi-indirect,  68 ;  systems, 
67,  232;  variety  in,  45,  46; 
utilitarian,  76 ;  sources, 
brightness  of,  55;  intensity 
of,  223 

Living :  cost  of,  7 ;  -room,  34, 
82,  135 

Louis:  XIV,  174;  XV,  175; 
„  XVI,  175 

Louvre,  174 

Lumen,  224 

Luminous:     bowl,     73;     effi- 


288 


INDEX 


ciency,  231;  output,  214 

Miniature  lamps,  102 

Mirror,   122 

Mobility:     of     light,     85;     of 

portables,  96 
Model  home,  100 
Monotony,  39 
Music  of  light,  271 
Mythology,   238 

Nature  and  color,  244 
Near-sightedness,  57 
Netherlands,  179 
Nouveau,  Part,  185 
Novelties,  190  et  seq. 
Novel  lighting,  49 

Oil  lamp,  166 

Ornament:  Adam,  184;  Egyp- 
tian, 166;  function  of,  169 

Outlets:  85,  127;  and  floor 
area,  95;  basement,  140, 
148;  bath-room,  140,  147; 
bedroom,  120,  146;  den, 
147;  dining-room,  116,  137, 
146;  entrance,  146;  garage, 
148;  kitchen,  146;  laundry, 
140;  living-room,  135,  144; 
paucity  of,  131 

Overcast  sky,  33 

Painting:  28;  with  light,  37, 
94 

Period  style:  126,  165  et  seq.; 
Adam,  181;  Colonial,  184; 
Dutch,  179;  Egyptian,  166; 
Elizabethan,  180;  Empire, 
175;  Georgian,  181;  Gothic, 
172;  Italian  Renaissance, 


173;  Roman,  168;  Roman- 
esque, 171 

Phonograph,  202 

Physics,  14 

Physiology,  14 

Picture-lighting,  201 

Pigments,  36 

Pilot  light,  205 

Porch,  125 

Portable:  45,  84  et  seq.,  118, 
151  et  seq.;  defects  of,  153 
et  seq.;  heights  of,  157  et 
seq.;  mobility  of,  96;  spe- 
cial, 88,  119;  fixtures,  162; 
reading  lamps,  157 

Primary  colors,  234  et  seq. 

Primitive  being,  3 

Production  of  light,  208  et 
seq. 

Psychology,  14,  94,  99 

Purity   of  color,  233 

Purple,  symbolism  of,  251 

Quantity  of  light,  56,  224 

Radiant  energy,  230 
Reading,  60 
Reception-hall,    117 
Red,  symbolism  of,  250 
Reflection-factor,   24 
Renaissance,  173 
Roman,  168 
Romanesque,  171 
Rules   for    safeguarding  eyes, 
62 

Safeguarding  vision,,  52,  62 
Saturation    of   color,   233 
Scale  of  values,  227 
Scattered  light,  75 


INDEX 


289 


Science,  4 

Sculpture,  29 

Seasonal  color,  246 

Semi-indirect  lighting,  68 

Sewing-room,  121 

Shade,  definition  of,  233 

Shades  for  fixtures,  80 

Shadows,  29,  42,  75,  229 

Sheraton,  180 

Shower,  104  et  seq. 

Signal  circuits,  141 

Skylight,   artificial,   280 

Snow:  reflection  of,  60;  blind- 
ness, 60 

Spectral  colors,  231 

Spectrum,  15 

(Spot-light,  202 

Stairway,    123 

Star  light,  56 

Sun:  33;  light,  56;  -room,  118 

Surroundings,  54 

Switch :  indicating,  205 ; 
series-parallel,  102,  205 

Symbolism  of  color,  243 

Symmetry,  34,  44,  45,  98 


Table-lamps,  157 
Tantalum,  208 
Terminology,  66,  21& 


Theatre,  248 
Tint,  definition  of,  233 
Tinted  light,  48,  216 
Tungsten  filament,  210 

Ultraviolet,  59,  231 
Urn,  193 

Vacuum  lamp,  212 

Value:  range  of,  35;  scale,  24, 

227 

Variety,  39,  92 
Vestibule,  outlets,  145 
Vision:    11    et    seq.,    28,    52; 

safeguarding,  51,  62 
Visualization,  80 
Volt,  218 

Wall-boxes:  115,  brackets,  74, 

90  et  seq.,  100 
Watt:  220,  -hour,  221 
Welsbach,  6 
White:     symbolism    of,    252; 

light,  242 
Windows:  127;  artificial,  197; 

washing  of,  203 
Wiring:    20,    46,    128;    plans, 

130  et  seq. 

Yellow,  symbolism  of,  250 


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